{"headers": [], "text": "'''Albert Einstein''' ( ; ; 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born [[Theoretical physics|theoretical physicist]], widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest physicists of all time. Einstein is known for developing the [[theory of relativity]], but he also made important contributions to the development of the theory of [[quantum mechanics]]. Relativity and quantum mechanics are together the two pillars of [[modern physics]]. His [[mass–energy equivalence]] formula , which arises from relativity theory, has been dubbed \"the world's most famous equation\". His work is also known for its influence on the [[philosophy of science]]. He received the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] \"for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the [[photoelectric effect]]\", a pivotal step in the development of quantum theory. His intellectual achievements and originality resulted in \"Einstein\" becoming [[Archetypal name|synonymous]] with \"genius\". In 1905, a year sometimes described as his ''[[annus mirabilis]]'' ('miracle year'), Einstein published [[Annus Mirabilis papers|four groundbreaking papers]]. These outlined the theory of the photoelectric effect, explained [[Brownian motion]], introduced [[special relativity]], and demonstrated mass-energy equivalence. Einstein thought that the laws of [[classical mechanics]] could no longer be reconciled with those of the [[electromagnetic field]], which led him to develop his special theory of relativity. He then extended the theory to gravitational fields; he published a paper on [[general relativity]] in 1916, introducing his theory of gravitation. In 1917, he applied the general theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe. He continued to deal with problems of [[statistical mechanics]] and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the [[Brownian motion|motion of molecules]]. He also investigated the thermal properties of light and the quantum theory of radiation, which laid the foundation of the [[photon]] theory of light. However, for much of the later part of his career, he worked on two ultimately unsuccessful endeavors. First, despite his great contributions to quantum mechanics, he opposed what it evolved into, objecting that nature \"does not play dice\". Second, he attempted to devise a [[unified field theory]] by generalizing his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism. As a result, he became increasingly isolated from the mainstream of modern physics.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "Einstein was born in the [[German Empire]], but moved to Switzerland in 1895, forsaking his German citizenship (as a subject of the [[Kingdom of Württemberg]]) the following year. In 1897, at the age of 17, he enrolled in the mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Swiss [[ETH Zurich|Federal polytechnic school]] (later renamed as ETH Zurich) in [[Zürich]], graduating in 1900. In 1901 he acquired Swiss citizenship, which he kept for the rest of his life, and in 1903 he secured a permanent position at the [[Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property|Swiss Patent Office]] in Bern. In 1905, he was awarded a PhD by the [[University of Zurich]]. In 1914, Einstein moved to [[Berlin]] in order to join the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]] and the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]. In 1917, Einstein became director of the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics]]; he also became a German citizen again – Prussian this time. In 1933, while Einstein was visiting the United States, [[Adolf Hitler]] came to power. Einstein did not return to Germany because he objected to the policies of the newly elected [[Nazi Germany|Nazi-led government]]. He settled in the United States and became an American citizen in 1940. On the eve of [[World War II]], he endorsed [[Einstein–Szilárd letter|a letter]] to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] alerting him to the potential [[German nuclear weapons program]] and recommending that the US begin [[Manhattan Project|similar research]]. Einstein supported the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]], but generally denounced the idea of [[nuclear weapons]].", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Early life and education"], "text": "Albert Einstein was born in [[Ulm]], in the [[Kingdom of Württemberg]] in the [[German Empire]], on 14 March 1879 into a family of secular [[Ashkenazi Jews]]. His parents were [[Hermann Einstein]], a salesman and engineer, and [[Pauline Koch]]. In 1880, the family moved to [[Munich]], where Einstein's father and his uncle Jakob founded ''Elektrotechnische Fabrik J. Einstein & Cie'', a company that manufactured electrical equipment based on [[direct current]]. Albert attended a [[Catholic school|Catholic elementary school]] in Munich, from the age of five, for three years. At the age of eight, he was transferred to the Luitpold Gymnasium (now known as the Albert Einstein Gymnasium), where he received advanced primary and secondary school education until he left the [[German Empire]] seven years later. In 1894, Hermann and Jakob's company lost a bid to supply the city of Munich with electrical lighting because they lacked the capital to convert their equipment from the [[direct current]] (DC) standard to the more efficient [[alternating current]] (AC) standard. The loss forced the sale of the Munich factory. In search of business, the Einstein family moved to Italy, first to [[Milan]] and a few months later to [[Pavia]]. When the family moved to Pavia, Einstein, then 15, stayed in Munich to finish his studies at the Luitpold Gymnasium. His father intended for him to pursue [[electrical engineering]], but Einstein clashed with the authorities and resented the school's regimen and teaching method. He later wrote that the spirit of learning and creative thought was lost in strict [[rote learning]]. At the end of December 1894, he traveled to Italy to join his family in Pavia, convincing the school to let him go by using a doctor's note. During his time in Italy he wrote a short essay with the title \"On the Investigation of the State of the [[Aether (classical element)|Ether]] in a Magnetic Field\". Einstein excelled at math and physics from a young age, reaching a mathematical level years ahead of his peers. The 12-year-old Einstein taught himself algebra and Euclidean geometry over a single summer. Einstein also independently discovered his own original proof of the [[Pythagorean theorem]] at age 12. A family tutor Max Talmud says that after he had given the 12-year-old Einstein a geometry textbook, after a short time \"[Einstein] had worked through the whole book. He thereupon devoted himself to higher mathematics... Soon the flight of his mathematical genius was so high I could not follow.\" His passion for geometry and algebra led the 12-year-old to become convinced that nature could be understood as a \"mathematical structure\". Einstein started teaching himself calculus at 12, and as a 14-year-old he says he had \"mastered [[integral calculus|integral]] and [[differential calculus]]\". At age 13, when he had become more seriously interested in philosophy (and music), Einstein was introduced to [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s ''[[Critique of Pure Reason]]''. Kant became his favorite philosopher, his tutor stating: \"At the time he was still a child, only thirteen years old, yet Kant's works, incomprehensible to ordinary mortals, seemed to be clear to him.\"", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Early life and education"], "text": "In 1895, at the age of 16, Einstein took the entrance examinations for the Swiss [[ETH Zurich|Federal polytechnic school]] in [[Zürich]] (later the Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, ETH). He failed to reach the required standard in the general part of the examination, but obtained exceptional grades in physics and mathematics. On the advice of the principal of the polytechnic school, he attended the [[Old Cantonal School Aarau|Argovian cantonal school]] ([[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]]) in [[Aarau]], Switzerland, in 1895 and 1896 to complete his secondary schooling. While lodging with the family of professor [[Jost Winteler]], he fell in love with Winteler's daughter, Marie. Albert's sister [[Maja Einstein|Maja]] later married Winteler's son Paul. In January 1896, with his father's approval, Einstein renounced his [[German citizenship|citizenship in the German Kingdom of Württemberg]] to avoid [[Conscription in Germany|military service]]. In September 1896, he passed the Swiss [[Matura]] with mostly good grades, including a top grade of 6 in physics and mathematical subjects, on [[Grading systems by country#Switzerland|a scale of 1–6]]. At 17, he enrolled in the four-year mathematics and physics teaching diploma program at the Federal polytechnic school. Marie Winteler, who was a year older, moved to [[Olsberg, Aargau|Olsberg]], Switzerland, for a teaching post. Einstein's future wife, a 20-year-old [[Serbs|Serbian]] named [[Mileva Marić]], also enrolled at the polytechnic school that year. She was the only woman among the six students in the mathematics and physics section of the teaching diploma course. Over the next few years, Einstein's and Marić's friendship developed into a romance, and they spent countless hours debating and reading books together on extra-curricular physics in which they were both interested. Einstein wrote in his letters to Marić that he preferred studying alongside her. In 1900, Einstein passed the exams in Maths and Physics and was awarded the Federal teaching diploma. There is eyewitness evidence and several letters over many years that indicate Marić might have collaborated with Einstein prior to his 1905 papers, known as the [[Annus Mirabilis papers|''Annus Mirabilis'' papers]], and that they developed some of the concepts together during their studies, although some historians of physics who have studied the issue disagree that she made any substantive contributions.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Marriages and children"], "text": "Early correspondence between Einstein and Marić was discovered and published in 1987 which revealed that the couple had a daughter named [[Lieserl Einstein|\"Lieserl\"]], born in early 1902 in [[Novi Sad]] where Marić was staying with her parents. Marić returned to Switzerland without the child, whose real name and fate are unknown. The contents of Einstein's letter in September 1903 suggest that the girl was either given up for adoption or died of [[scarlet fever]] in infancy. Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, their son [[Hans Albert Einstein]] was born in [[Bern]], Switzerland. Their son [[Einstein family#Eduard \"Tete\" Einstein (Albert's son)|Eduard]] was born in Zürich in July 1910. The couple moved to Berlin in April 1914, but Marić returned to Zürich with their sons after learning that despite their close relationship before, Einstein's chief romantic attraction was now his cousin [[Elsa Einstein|Elsa Löwenthal]]; she was his first cousin maternally and the second cousin paternally. They divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years. As part of the divorce settlement, Einstein transferred his Nobel Prize fund to Marić when he won it. Eduard had a breakdown at about age 20 and was diagnosed with [[schizophrenia]]. His mother cared for him and he was also committed to asylums for several periods, finally being committed permanently after her death. In letters revealed in 2015, Einstein wrote to his early love Marie Winteler about his marriage and his strong feelings for her. He wrote in 1910, while his wife was pregnant with their second child: \"I think of you in heartfelt love every spare minute and am so unhappy as only a man can be.\" He spoke about a \"misguided love\" and a \"missed life\" regarding his love for Marie. Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal in 1919, after having a relationship with her since 1912. They emigrated to the United States in 1933. Elsa was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems in 1935 and died in December 1936. In 1923, Einstein fell in love with a secretary named Betty Neumann, the niece of a close friend, Hans Mühsam. In a volume of letters released by [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]] in 2006, Einstein described about six women, including Margarete Lebach (a blonde Austrian), Estella Katzenellenbogen (the rich owner of a florist business), Toni Mendel (a wealthy Jewish widow) and Ethel Michanowski (a Berlin socialite), with whom he spent time and from whom he received gifts while being married to Elsa. Later, after the death of his second wife Elsa, Einstein was briefly in a relationship with Margarita Konenkova. Konenkova was a Russian spy who was married to the noted Russian sculptor [[Sergei Konenkov]] (who created the bronze bust of Einstein at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] at Princeton).", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Patent office"], "text": "After graduating in 1900, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post. He acquired [[Switzerland|Swiss]] citizenship in February 1901, but was not [[conscription in Switzerland|conscripted]] for medical reasons. With the help of [[Marcel Grossmann]]'s father, he secured a job in [[Bern]] at the [[Swiss Federal Institute of Intellectual Property|Swiss Patent Office]], the patent office, as an [[Patent examiner|assistant examiner – level III]]. Einstein evaluated [[patent application]] for a variety of devices including a gravel sorter and an electromechanical typewriter. In 1903, his position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he \"fully mastered machine technology\". Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the [[Einstein's thought experiments|thought experiments]] that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time. With a few friends he had met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group in 1902, self-mockingly named \"[[Olympia Academy|The Olympia Academy]]\", which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Sometimes they were joined by Mileva who attentively listened but did not participate. Their readings included the works of [[Henri Poincaré]], [[Ernst Mach]], and [[David Hume]], which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "First scientific papers"], "text": "In 1900, Einstein's paper [[List of scientific publications by Albert Einstein#Journal articles|\"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\"]] (\"Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena\") was published in the journal ''[[Annalen der Physik]]''. On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with [[Alfred Kleiner]], Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as ''[[Pro forma|pro-forma]]'' advisor. As a result, Einstein was awarded a PhD by the [[University of Zürich]], with his dissertation ''A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions''. Also in 1905, which has been called Einstein's ''[[annus mirabilis]]'' (amazing year), he published [[Annus Mirabilis papers|four groundbreaking papers]], on the [[photoelectric effect]], [[Brownian motion]], [[special relativity]], and the [[equivalence of mass and energy]], which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world, at the age of 26.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Academic career"], "text": "By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist and was appointed lecturer at the [[University of Bern]]. The following year, after he gave a lecture on [[electrodynamics]] and the relativity principle at the University of Zurich, [[Alfred Kleiner]] recommended him to the faculty for a newly created professorship in theoretical physics. Einstein was appointed associate professor in 1909. Einstein became a full professor at the German [[Charles-Ferdinand University]] in [[Prague]] in April 1911, accepting [[Cisleithania|Austrian]] citizenship in the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] to do so. During his Prague stay, he wrote 11 scientific works, five of them on radiation mathematics and on the quantum theory of solids. In July 1912, he returned to his alma mater in Zürich. From 1912 until 1914, he was a professor of theoretical physics at the [[ETH Zurich]], where he taught analytical mechanics and [[thermodynamics]]. He also studied [[continuum mechanics]], the molecular theory of heat, and the problem of gravitation, on which he worked with mathematician and friend [[Marcel Grossmann]]. When the \"[[Manifesto of the Ninety-Three]]\" was published in October 1914—a document signed by a host of prominent German intellectuals that justified Germany's militarism and position during the First World War—Einstein was one of the few German intellectuals to rebut its contents and sign the pacifistic \"[[Manifesto to the Europeans]]\". On 3 July 1913, he became a member of the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]] in Berlin. [[Max Planck]] and [[Walther Nernst]] visited him the next week in Zurich to persuade him to join the academy, additionally offering him the post of director at the [[Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics]], which was soon to be established. Membership in the academy included paid salary and professorship without teaching duties at [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]. He was officially elected to the academy on 24 July, and he moved to Berlin the following year. His decision to move to Berlin was also influenced by the prospect of living near his cousin Elsa, with whom he had started a romantic affair. He joined the academy and thus Berlin University on 1 April 1914. As World War I broke out that year, the plan for Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics was aborted. The institute was established on 1 October 1917, with Einstein as its director. In 1916, Einstein was elected president of the [[German Physical Society]] (1916–1918). Based on calculations Einstein had made in 1911 using his new theory of general relativity, [[Gravitational lens|light from another star should be bent]] by the Sun's gravity. In 1919, that prediction was confirmed by Sir [[Arthur Eddington]] during the [[solar eclipse of 29 May 1919]]. Those observations were published in the international media, making Einstein world-famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper ''[[The Times]]'' printed a banner headline that read: \"Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown\".", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Academic career"], "text": "In 1920, he became a Foreign Member of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]. In 1922, he was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] \"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". While the [[General relativity|general theory of relativity]] was still considered somewhat controversial, the citation also does not treat even the cited photoelectric work as an ''explanation'' but merely as a ''discovery of the law'', as the idea of photons was considered outlandish and did not receive universal acceptance until the 1924 derivation of the [[Planck spectrum]] by [[S. N. Bose]]. Einstein was elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1921|Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921]]. He also received the [[Copley Medal]] from the [[Royal Society]] in 1925.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "1921–1922: Travels abroad"], "text": "Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor [[John Francis Hylan]], followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at [[Columbia University]] and [[Princeton University]], and in Washington, he accompanied representatives of the [[National Academy of Science]] on a visit to the [[White House]]. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher [[Viscount Haldane]] in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual, and political figures, and delivered a lecture at [[King's College London]]. He also published an essay, \"My First Impression of the U.S.A.\", in July 1921, in which he tried briefly to describe some characteristics of Americans, much as had [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], who published his own impressions in ''[[Democracy in America]]'' (1835). For some of his observations, Einstein was clearly surprised: \"What strikes a visitor is the joyous, positive attitude to life ... The American is friendly, self-confident, optimistic, and without envy.\" In 1922, his travels took him to Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour, as he visited [[Singapore]], [[Ceylon]] and [[Japan]], where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. After his first public lecture, he met the emperor and empress at the [[Tokyo Imperial Palace|Imperial Palace]], where thousands came to watch. In a letter to his sons, he described his impression of the Japanese as being modest, intelligent, considerate, and having a true feel for art. In his own travel diaries from his 1922–23 visit to Asia, he expresses some views on the Chinese, Japanese and Indian people, which have been described as xenophobic and racist judgments when they were rediscovered in 2018. Because of Einstein's travels to the Far East, he was unable to personally accept the Nobel Prize for Physics at the Stockholm award ceremony in December 1922. In his place, the banquet speech was made by a German diplomat, who praised Einstein not only as a scientist but also as an international peacemaker and activist. On his return voyage, he visited [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]] for 12 days, his only visit to that region. He was greeted as if he were a head of state, rather than a physicist, which included a cannon salute upon arriving at the home of the British high commissioner, [[Sir Herbert Samuel]]. During one reception, the building was stormed by people who wanted to see and hear him. In Einstein's talk to the audience, he expressed happiness that the Jewish people were beginning to be recognized as a force in the world. Einstein visited Spain for two weeks in 1923, where he briefly met [[Santiago Ramón y Cajal]] and also received a diploma from [[Alfonso XIII of Spain|King Alfonso XIII]] naming him a member of the Spanish Academy of Sciences.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "1921–1922: Travels abroad"], "text": "From 1922 to 1932, Einstein was a member of the [[International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]] of the [[League of Nations]] in [[Geneva]] (with a few months of interruption in 1923–1924), a body created to promote international exchange between scientists, researchers, teachers, artists, and intellectuals. Originally slated to serve as the Swiss delegate, Secretary-General [[Eric Drummond]] was persuaded by Catholic activists [[Oskar Halecki]] and [[Giuseppe Motta]] to instead have him become the German delegate, thus allowing [[Gonzague de Reynold]] to take the Swiss spot, from which he promoted traditionalist Catholic values. Einstein's former physics professor [[Hendrik Lorentz]] and the Polish chemist [[Marie Curie]] were also members of the committee.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "1930–1931: Travel to the US"], "text": "In December 1930, Einstein visited America for the second time, originally intended as a two-month working visit as a research fellow at the [[California Institute of Technology]]. After the national attention, he received during his first trip to the US, he and his arrangers aimed to protect his privacy. Although swamped with telegrams and invitations to receive awards or speak publicly, he declined them all. After arriving in New York City, Einstein was taken to various places and events, including [[Chinatown, Manhattan|Chinatown]], a lunch with the editors of ''The New York Times'', and a performance of ''Carmen'' at the [[Metropolitan Opera]], where he was cheered by the audience on his arrival. During the days following, he was given the keys to the city by Mayor [[Jimmy Walker]] and met the president of Columbia University, who described Einstein as \"the ruling monarch of the mind\". [[Harry Emerson Fosdick]], pastor at New York's [[Riverside Church]], gave Einstein a tour of the church and showed him a full-size statue that the church made of Einstein, standing at the entrance. Also during his stay in New York, he joined a crowd of 15,000 people at [[Madison Square Garden]] during a [[Hanukkah]] celebration. Einstein next traveled to California, where he met [[Caltech]] president and Nobel laureate [[Robert A. Millikan]]. His friendship with Millikan was \"awkward\", as Millikan \"had a penchant for patriotic militarism\", where Einstein was a pronounced [[Pacifism|pacifist]]. During an address to Caltech's students, Einstein noted that science was often inclined to do more harm than good. This aversion to war also led Einstein to befriend author [[Upton Sinclair]] and film star [[Charlie Chaplin]], both noted for their pacifism. [[Carl Laemmle]], head of [[Universal Studios]], gave Einstein a tour of his studio and introduced him to Chaplin. They had an instant rapport, with Chaplin inviting Einstein and his wife, Elsa, to his home for dinner. Chaplin said Einstein's outward persona, calm and gentle, seemed to conceal a \"highly emotional temperament\", from which came his \"extraordinary intellectual energy\". Chaplin's film, ''[[City Lights]]'', was to premiere a few days later in Hollywood, and Chaplin invited Einstein and Elsa to join him as his special guests. [[Walter Isaacson]], Einstein's biographer, described this as \"one of the most memorable scenes in the new era of celebrity\". Chaplin visited Einstein at his home on a later trip to Berlin and recalled his \"modest little flat\" and the piano at which he had begun writing his theory. Chaplin speculated that it was \"possibly used as kindling wood by the Nazis\".", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "1933: Emigration to the US"], "text": "In February 1933, while on a visit to the United States, Einstein knew he could not return to Germany with the rise to power of the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] under Germany's new chancellor, [[Adolf Hitler]]. While at American universities in early 1933, he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the [[California Institute of Technology]] in Pasadena. In February and March 1933, the [[Gestapo]] repeatedly raided his family's apartment in Berlin. He and his wife Elsa returned to Europe in March, and during the trip, they learned that the German Reichstag passed the [[Enabling Act of 1933|Enabling Act]], which was passed on 23 March and transformed Hitler's government into a ''de facto'' legal dictatorship and that they would not be able to proceed to Berlin. Later on they heard that their cottage was raided by the Nazis and his personal sailboat confiscated. Upon landing in [[Antwerp]], Belgium on 28 March, he immediately went to the German consulate and surrendered his passport, formally renouncing his German citizenship. The Nazis later sold his boat and converted his cottage into a [[Hitler Youth]] camp.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "1933: Emigration to the US", "Refugee status"], "text": "In April 1933, Einstein discovered that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities. Historian [[Gerald Holton]] describes how, with \"virtually no audible protest being raised by their colleagues\", thousands of Jewish scientists were suddenly forced to give up their university positions and their names were removed from the rolls of institutions where they were employed. A month later, Einstein's works were among those targeted by the [[German Student Union]] in the [[Nazi book burnings]], with Nazi propaganda minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] proclaiming, \"Jewish intellectualism is dead.\" One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, \"not yet hanged\", offering a $5,000 bounty on his head. In a subsequent letter to physicist and friend [[Max Born]], who had already emigrated from Germany to England, Einstein wrote, \"... I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.\" After moving to the US, he described the book burnings as a \"spontaneous emotional outburst\" by those who \"shun popular enlightenment\", and \"more than anything else in the world, fear the influence of men of intellectual independence\". Einstein was now without a permanent home, unsure where he would live and work, and equally worried about the fate of countless other scientists still in Germany. He rented a house in De Haan, Belgium, where he lived for a few months. In late July 1933, he went to England for about six weeks at the personal invitation of British naval officer Commander [[Oliver Locker-Lampson]], who had become friends with Einstein in the preceding years. Locker-Lampson invited him to stay near his home in a wooden cabin on Roughton Heath in the Parish of . To protect Einstein, Locker-Lampson had two bodyguards watch over him at his secluded cabin, with a photo of them carrying shotguns and guarding Einstein, published in the ''Daily Herald'' on 24 July 1933. Locker-Lampson took Einstein to meet [[Winston Churchill]] at his home, and later, [[Austen Chamberlain]] and former Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George|Lloyd George]]. Einstein asked them to help bring Jewish scientists out of Germany. British historian [[Martin Gilbert]] notes that Churchill responded immediately, and sent his friend, physicist [[Frederick Lindemann, 1st Viscount Cherwell|Frederick Lindemann]], to Germany to seek out Jewish scientists and place them in British universities. Churchill later observed that as a result of Germany having driven the Jews out, they had lowered their \"technical standards\" and put [[Allies of World War II|the Allies]]' technology ahead of theirs. Einstein later contacted leaders of other nations, including [[Turkey]]'s Prime Minister, [[İsmet İnönü]], to whom he wrote in September 1933 requesting placement of unemployed German-Jewish scientists. As a result of Einstein's letter, Jewish invitees to Turkey eventually totaled over \"1,000 saved individuals\".", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "1933: Emigration to the US", "Refugee status"], "text": "Locker-Lampson also submitted a bill to parliament to extend British citizenship to Einstein, during which period Einstein made a number of public appearances describing the crisis brewing in Europe. In one of his speeches he denounced Germany's treatment of Jews, while at the same time he introduced a bill promoting Jewish citizenship in Palestine, as they were being denied citizenship elsewhere. In his speech he described Einstein as a \"citizen of the world\" who should be offered a temporary shelter in the UK. Both bills failed, however, and Einstein then accepted an earlier offer from the [[Institute for Advanced Study]], in [[Princeton, New Jersey]], US, to become a resident scholar.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "1933: Emigration to the US", "Resident scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study"], "text": "In October 1933, Einstein returned to the US and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study, noted for having become a refuge for scientists fleeing Nazi Germany. At the time, most American universities, including Harvard, Princeton and Yale, had minimal or no Jewish faculty or students, as a result of their [[Jewish quota]], which lasted until the late 1940s. Einstein was still undecided on his future. He had offers from several European universities, including [[Christ Church, Oxford]] where he stayed for three short periods between May 1931 and June 1933 and was offered a 5-year studentship, but in 1935, he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship. Einstein's affiliation with the Institute for Advanced Study would last until his death in 1955. He was one of the four first selected (two of the others being [[John von Neumann]] and [[Kurt Gödel]]) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. [[Bruria Kaufman]], his assistant, later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a [[unified field theory]] and to refute the [[Copenhagen interpretation|accepted interpretation]] of [[quantum physics]], both unsuccessfully.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "1933: Emigration to the US", "World War II and the Manhattan Project"], "text": "In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included émigré physicist [[Leó Szilárd]] attempted to alert Washington to ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group's warnings were discounted. Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as [[Edward Teller]] and [[Eugene Wigner]], \"regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the [[German nuclear energy project|race to build an atomic bomb]], and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.\" To make certain the US was aware of the danger, in July 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Szilárd and Wigner visited Einstein to explain the possibility of atomic bombs, which Einstein, a pacifist, said he had never considered. He was asked to lend his support by writing [[Einstein–Szilárd letter|a letter]], with Szilárd, to President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], recommending the US pay attention and engage in its own nuclear weapons research. The letter is believed to be \"arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II\". In addition to the letter, Einstein used his connections with the [[Belgian Royal Family]] and the Belgian queen mother to get access with a personal envoy to the White House's Oval Office. Some say that as a result of Einstein's letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the US entered the \"race\" to develop the bomb, drawing on its \"immense material, financial, and scientific resources\" to initiate the [[Manhattan Project]]. For Einstein, \"war was a disease ... [and] he called for resistance to war.\" By signing the letter to Roosevelt, some argue he went against his pacifist principles. In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, [[Linus Pauling]], \"I made one great mistake in my life—when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification—the danger that the Germans would make them ...\" In 1955, Einstein and ten other intellectuals and scientists, including British philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]], signed [[Russell–Einstein Manifesto|a manifesto]] highlighting the danger of nuclear weapons.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "1933: Emigration to the US", "US citizenship"], "text": "Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, he expressed his appreciation of the [[meritocracy]] in American culture when compared to Europe. He recognized the \"right of individuals to say and think what they pleased\", without social barriers, and as a result, individuals were encouraged, he said, to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein joined the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP) in Princeton, where he campaigned for the [[Civil rights movement (1896–1954)|civil rights]] of African Americans. He considered racism America's \"worst disease\", seeing it as \"handed down from one generation to the next\". As part of his involvement, he corresponded with civil rights activist [[W. E. B. Du Bois]] and was prepared to testify on his behalf during his trial in 1951. When Einstein offered to be a character witness for Du Bois, the judge decided to drop the case. In 1946 Einstein visited [[Lincoln University (Pennsylvania)|Lincoln University]] in Pennsylvania, a [[historically black college]], where he was awarded an honorary degree. Lincoln was the first university in the United States to grant college degrees to [[African Americans]]; alumni include [[Langston Hughes]] and [[Thurgood Marshall]]. Einstein gave a speech about racism in America, adding, \"I do not intend to be quiet about it.\" A resident of Princeton recalls that Einstein had once paid the college tuition for a black student. Einstein has said \"Being a Jew myself, perhaps I can understand and empathize with how black people feel as victims of discrimination\".", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Personal life", "Assisting Zionist causes"], "text": "Einstein was a figurehead leader in helping establish the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]], which opened in 1925 and was among its first Board of Governors. Earlier, in 1921, he was asked by the biochemist and president of the [[World Zionist Organization]], [[Chaim Weizmann]], to help raise funds for the planned university. He also submitted various suggestions as to its initial programs. Among those, he advised first creating an Institute of Agriculture in order to settle the undeveloped land. That should be followed, he suggested, by a Chemical Institute and an Institute of Microbiology, to fight the various ongoing epidemics such as [[malaria]], which he called an \"evil\" that was undermining a third of the country's development. Establishing an Oriental Studies Institute, to include language courses given in both Hebrew and Arabic, for scientific exploration of the country and its historical monuments, was also important. Einstein was not a [[Nationalism|nationalist]]; he was against the creation of an independent Jewish state, which would be established without his help as [[Israel]] in 1948. Einstein felt that Jews could live alongside native Arabs in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. His views were not shared by the majority of Jews seeking to form a new country; as a result, Einstein was limited to a marginal role in the [[Zionism|Zionist movement]]. Chaim Weizmann later became Israel's first president. Upon his death while in office in November 1952 and at the urging of [[Ezriel Carlebach]], Prime Minister [[David Ben-Gurion]] offered Einstein the position of [[President of Israel]], a mostly ceremonial post. The offer was presented by Israel's ambassador in Washington, [[Abba Eban]], who explained that the offer \"embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons\". Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was \"deeply moved\", and \"at once saddened and ashamed\" that he could not accept it.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Personal life", "Love of music"], "text": "Einstein developed an appreciation for music at an early age. In his late journals he wrote: \"If I were not a physicist, I would probably be a musician. I often think in music. I live my daydreams in music. I see my life in terms of music... I get most joy in life out of music.\" His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the [[violin]], not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate into [[German culture]]. According to conductor [[Leon Botstein]], Einstein began playing when he was 5. However, he did not enjoy it at that age. When he turned 13, he discovered the [[Mozart violin sonatas|violin sonatas of Mozart]], whereupon he became enamored of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s compositions and studied music more willingly. Einstein taught himself to play without \"ever practicing systematically\". He said that \"love is a better teacher than a sense of duty.\" At age 17, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau while playing [[Beethoven's violin sonatas (disambiguation)|Beethoven's violin sonatas]]. The examiner stated afterward that his playing was \"remarkable and revealing of 'great insight'\". What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein \"displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.\" Music took on a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein's life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional musician himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played [[chamber music]] were a few professionals, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music had also become a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zürich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. He is sometimes erroneously credited as the editor of the 1937 edition of the [[Köchel catalog]] of Mozart's work; that edition was prepared by [[Alfred Einstein]], who may have been a distant relation. In 1931, while engaged in research at the California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles, where he played some of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and Mozart's works with members of the [[Zoellner Quartet]]. Near the end of his life, when the young [[Juilliard Quartet]] visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them, and the quartet was \"impressed by Einstein's level of coordination and intonation\".", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Personal life", "Political and religious views"], "text": "In 1918, Einstein was one of the founding members of the [[German Democratic Party]], a [[Liberalism|liberal]] party. However, later in his life, Einstein's political view was in favor of [[socialism]] and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in his essays such as \"[[Why Socialism?]]\" His opinions on the [[Bolsheviks]] also changed with time. In 1925, he criticized them for not having a 'well-regulated system of government' and called their rule a 'regime of terror and a tragedy in human history'. He later adopted a more balanced view, criticizing their methods but praising them, which is shown by his 1929 remark on [[Vladimir Lenin]]: \"In Lenin I honor a man, who in total sacrifice of his own person has committed his entire energy to realizing social justice. I do not find his methods advisable. One thing is certain, however: men like him are the guardians and renewers of mankind's conscience.\" Einstein offered and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics. He strongly advocated the idea of a democratic [[World government|global government]] that would check the power of nation-states in the framework of a world federation. The FBI created a secret dossier on Einstein in 1932, and by the time of his death his FBI file was 1,427 pages long. Einstein was deeply impressed by [[Mahatma Gandhi]], with whom he exchanged written letters. He described Gandhi as \"a role model for the generations to come\". Einstein spoke of his spiritual outlook in a wide array of original writings and interviews. Einstein stated that he had sympathy for the impersonal [[Pantheism|pantheistic]] God of [[Spinozism|Baruch Spinoza's philosophy]]. He did not believe in a [[personal god]] who concerns himself with fates and actions of human beings, a view which he described as naïve. He clarified, however, that \"I am not an atheist\", preferring to call himself an [[Agnosticism|agnostic]], or a \"deeply religious nonbeliever\". When asked if he believed in an [[afterlife]], Einstein replied, \"No. And one life is enough for me.\" Einstein was primarily affiliated with non-religious [[Secular humanist|humanist]] and [[Ethical Culture]] groups in both the UK and US. He served on the advisory board of the [[First Humanist Society of New York]], and was an honorary associate of the [[Rationalist Association]], which publishes ''[[New Humanist]]'' in Britain. For the 75th anniversary of the [[New York Society for Ethical Culture]], he stated that the idea of Ethical Culture embodied his personal conception of what is most valuable and enduring in religious idealism. He observed, \"Without 'ethical culture' there is no salvation for humanity.\"", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Personal life", "Political and religious views"], "text": "In a German-language letter to philosopher [[Eric Gutkind]], dated 3 January 1954, Einstein wrote:The word [[God (word)|God]] is for me nothing more than the expression and product of human weaknesses, the [[Bible]] a collection of honorable, but still primitive legends which are nevertheless pretty childish. No interpretation no matter how subtle can (for me) change this. ... For me the [[Jewish religion]] like all other religions is an incarnation of the most childish superstitions. And the [[Jewish people]] to whom I gladly belong and with whose mentality I have a deep affinity have no different quality for me than all other people. ... I cannot see anything '[[Jews as the chosen people|chosen]]' about them.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Life and career", "Death"], "text": "On 17 April 1955, Einstein experienced [[internal bleeding]] caused by the rupture of an [[abdominal aortic aneurysm]], which had previously been reinforced surgically by [[Rudolph Nissen]] in 1948. He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the state of Israel's seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live to complete it. Einstein refused surgery, saying, \"I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share; it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.\" He died in [[Princeton Hospital]] early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end. During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, [[Thomas Stoltz Harvey]], removed [[Albert Einstein's brain|Einstein's brain]] for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the [[neuroscience]] of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so [[human intelligence|intelligent]]. Einstein's remains were [[Cremation|cremated]] in [[Trenton, New Jersey|Trenton]], New Jersey, and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location. In a memorial lecture delivered on 13 December 1965 at [[UNESCO]] headquarters, nuclear physicist [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]] summarized his impression of Einstein as a person: \"He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness ... There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn.\"", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career"], "text": "Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles. He published more than 300 scientific papers and 150 non-scientific ones. On 5 December 2014, universities and archives announced the release of Einstein's papers, comprising more than 30,000 unique documents. Einstein's intellectual achievements and originality have made the word \"Einstein\" synonymous with \"[[genius]]\". In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the [[Bose–Einstein statistics]], the [[Einstein refrigerator]] and others.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "1905 – ''Annus Mirabilis'' papers"], "text": "The [[Annus Mirabilis papers|''Annus Mirabilis'' papers]] are four articles pertaining to the [[photoelectric effect]] (which gave rise to [[quantum mechanics|quantum theory]]), [[Brownian motion]], the [[special theory of relativity]], and [[Mass–energy equivalence|E = mc]] that Einstein published in the ''Annalen der Physik'' scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of [[History of physics#Modern physics|modern physics]] and changed views on [[space]], time, and [[matter]]. The four papers are:", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Statistical mechanics", "Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics"], "text": "Einstein's first paper submitted in 1900 to ''Annalen der Physik'' was on [[capillary attraction]]. It was published in 1901 with the title \"Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen\", which translates as \"Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena\". Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret [[atom]] phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Statistical mechanics", "Theory of critical opalescence"], "text": "Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to [[Rayleigh scattering]], which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue. Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Special relativity"], "text": "Einstein's \"''Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper''\" (\"On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies\") was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciled conflicts between [[Maxwell's equations]] (the laws of electricity and magnetism) and the laws of Newtonian mechanics by introducing changes to the laws of mechanics. Observationally, the effects of these changes are most apparent at high speeds (where objects are moving at speeds close to the [[speed of light]]). The theory developed in this paper later became known as Einstein's special theory of relativity. There is evidence from Einstein's writings that he collaborated with his first wife, Mileva Marić, on this work. The decision to publish only under his name seems to have been mutual, but the exact reason is unknown. This paper predicted that, when measured in the frame of a relatively moving observer, a clock carried by a moving body would appear to [[Time dilation|slow down]], and the body itself would [[Length contraction|contract]] in its direction of motion. This paper also argued that the idea of a [[luminiferous aether]]—one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time—was superfluous. In his paper on [[mass–energy equivalence]], Einstein produced ''E'' = ''mc'' as a consequence of his special relativity equations. Einstein's 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with [[Max Planck]]. Einstein originally framed special relativity in terms of [[kinematics]] (the study of moving bodies). In 1908, [[Hermann Minkowski]] reinterpreted special relativity in geometric terms as a theory of [[spacetime]]. Einstein adopted Minkowski's formalism in his 1915 [[General relativity|general theory of relativity]].", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "General relativity", "General relativity and the equivalence principle"], "text": "General relativity (GR) is a [[theory of gravitation]] that was developed by Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to [[general relativity]], the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of [[spacetime|space and time]] by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern [[astrophysics]]. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of [[black holes]], regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape. As Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within [[special relativity]] was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory. Consequently, in 1907 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article titled \"On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions Drawn from It\", he argued that [[free fall]] is really inertial motion, and that for a free-falling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the [[equivalence principle]]. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomena of [[gravitational time dilation]], [[gravitational redshift]] and [[Gravitational lensing|deflection of light]]. In 1911, Einstein published another article \"On the Influence of Gravitation on the Propagation of Light\" expanding on the 1907 article, in which he estimated the amount of deflection of light by massive bodies. Thus, the theoretical prediction of general relativity could for the first time be tested experimentally.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "General relativity", "Gravitational waves"], "text": "In 1916, Einstein predicted [[gravitational wave]], ripples in the [[curvature]] of spacetime which propagate as [[wave]], traveling outward from the source, transporting energy as gravitational radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its [[Lorentz invariance]] which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|Newtonian theory of gravitation]], which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting [[neutron stars]], [[PSR B1913+16]]. The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed on 11 February 2016, when researchers at [[LIGO]] published the [[first observation of gravitational waves]], detected on Earth on 14 September 2015, nearly one hundred years after the prediction.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "General relativity", "Hole argument and Entwurf theory"], "text": "While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the [[gauge invariance]] in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only. In June 1913, the Entwurf ('draft') theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. After more than two years of intensive work, Einstein realized that the [[hole argument]] was mistaken and abandoned the theory in November 1915.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "General relativity", "Physical cosmology"], "text": "In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to the structure of the universe as a whole. He discovered that the general field equations predicted a universe that was dynamic, either contracting or expanding. As observational evidence for a dynamic universe was not known at the time, Einstein introduced a new term, the [[cosmological constant]], to the field equations, in order to allow the theory to predict a static universe. The modified field equations predicted a static universe of closed curvature, in accordance with Einstein's understanding of [[Mach's principle]] in these years. This model became known as the Einstein World or [[Einstein's static universe]]. Following the discovery of the recession of the nebulae by [[Edwin Hubble]] in 1929, Einstein abandoned his static model of the universe, and proposed two dynamic models of the cosmos, [[The Friedmann-Einstein universe]] of 1931 and the [[Einstein–de Sitter universe]] of 1932. In each of these models, Einstein discarded the cosmological constant, claiming that it was \"in any case theoretically unsatisfactory\". In many Einstein biographies, it is claimed that Einstein referred to the cosmological constant in later years as his \"biggest blunder\". The astrophysicist [[Mario Livio]] has recently cast doubt on this claim, suggesting that it may be exaggerated. In late 2013, a team led by the Irish physicist [[Cormac O'Raifeartaigh]] discovered evidence that, shortly after learning of Hubble's observations of the recession of the nebulae, Einstein considered a [[Steady State theory|steady-state model]] of the universe. In a hitherto overlooked manuscript, apparently written in early 1931, Einstein explored a model of the expanding universe in which the density of matter remains constant due to a continuous creation of matter, a process he associated with the cosmological constant. As he stated in the paper, \"In what follows, I would like to draw attention to a solution to equation (1) that can account for Hubbel's [''sic''] facts, and in which the density is constant over time\" ... \"If one considers a physically bounded volume, particles of matter will be continually leaving it. For the density to remain constant, new particles of matter must be continually formed in the volume from space.\" It thus appears that Einstein considered a [[Steady State theory|steady-state model]] of the expanding universe many years before Hoyle, Bondi and Gold. However, Einstein's steady-state model contained a fundamental flaw and he quickly abandoned the idea.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "General relativity", "Energy momentum pseudotensor"], "text": "General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. [[Noether's theorem]] allows these quantities to be determined from a [[Lagrangian (field theory)|Lagrangian]] with [[Translational symmetry|translation invariance]], but [[general covariance]] makes translation invariance into something of a [[gauge symmetry]]. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was, in fact, the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by [[Lev Landau]] and [[Evgeny Lifshitz]], and others, and has become standard. The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by [[Erwin Schrödinger]] and others.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "General relativity", "Wormholes"], "text": "In 1935, Einstein collaborated with [[Nathan Rosen]] to produce a model of a [[wormhole]], often called [[Einstein–Rosen bridges]]. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper \"Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?\". These solutions cut and pasted [[Schwarzschild black hole]] to make a bridge between two patches. If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "General relativity", "Einstein–Cartan theory"], "text": "In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the [[Torsion tensor|torsion]]. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "General relativity", "Equations of motion"], "text": "The theory of general relativity has a fundamental lawthe [[Einstein field equations]], which describe how space curves. The [[geodesic equation]], which describes how particles move, may be derived from the Einstein field equations. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein field equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself. This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by [[Roy Kerr]] for spinning objects.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Old quantum theory", "Photons and energy quanta"], "text": "In a 1905 paper, Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (''[[quantum|quanta]]''). Einstein's light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with [[Robert Millikan]]'s detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of [[Compton scattering]]. Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency ''f'' is associated with a collection of [[photon]] with energy ''hf'' each, where ''h'' is [[Planck's constant]]. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Old quantum theory", "Quantized atomic vibrations"], "text": "In 1907, Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently—a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be difficult, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. [[Peter Debye]] refined this model.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Old quantum theory", "Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables"], "text": "Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After [[Ernest Rutherford]] discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the [[periodic table of the elements]]. Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments [[Wilhelm Wien]] had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of [[adiabatic invariant|adiabatic invariance]] of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the [[blackbody radiation|blackbody curves]] at different temperature to be derived from one another by a [[Wien's displacement law|simple shifting process]]. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. [[Arnold Sommerfeld]] identified this adiabatic invariant as the [[action-angle variables|action variable]] of classical mechanics.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Old quantum theory", "Bose–Einstein statistics"], "text": "In 1924, Einstein received a description of a [[statistical mechanics|statistical]] model from Indian physicist [[Satyendra Nath Bose]], based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose's statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose's paper to the ''[[Zeitschrift für Physik]]''. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the [[Bose–Einstein condensate]] phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures. It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by [[Eric Allin Cornell]] and [[Carl Wieman]] using [[ultracold atom|ultra-cooling]] equipment built at the [[National Institute of Standards and Technology|NIST]]–[[JILA]] laboratory at the [[University of Colorado at Boulder]]. Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of [[boson]]. Einstein's sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Old quantum theory", "Wave–particle duality"], "text": "Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a ''[[Privatdozent]]'' at the University of Bern. In \"''Über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung''\" (\"[[s:Translation:The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation|The Development of our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation]]\"), on the [[quantization (physics)|quantization]] of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck's energy quanta must have well-defined [[momentum|momenta]] and act in some respects as independent, [[point particle|point-like particles]]. This paper introduced the ''photon'' concept (although the name ''photon'' was introduced later by [[Gilbert N. Lewis]] in 1926) and inspired the notion of [[wave–particle duality]] in [[quantum mechanics]]. Einstein saw this wave–particle duality in radiation as concrete evidence for his conviction that physics needed a new, unified foundation.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Old quantum theory", "Zero-point energy"], "text": "In a series of works completed from 1911 to 1913, Planck reformulated his 1900 quantum theory and introduced the idea of [[zero-point energy]] in his \"second quantum theory\". Soon, this idea attracted the attention of Einstein and his assistant [[Otto Stern]]. Assuming the energy of rotating diatomic molecules contains zero-point energy, they then compared the theoretical specific heat of hydrogen gas with the experimental data. The numbers matched nicely. However, after publishing the findings, they promptly withdrew their support, because they no longer had confidence in the correctness of the idea of zero-point energy.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Old quantum theory", "Stimulated emission"], "text": "In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in ''Physikalische Zeitschrift'' that proposed the possibility of [[stimulated emission]], the physical process that makes possible the [[maser]] and the [[laser]]. This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck's distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Old quantum theory", "Matter waves"], "text": "Einstein discovered [[Louis de Broglie]]'s work and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for [[Matter wave|de Broglie waves]], which Einstein suggested was the [[Hamilton–Jacobi equation]] of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger's work of 1926.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Quantum mechanics", "Einstein's objections to quantum mechanics"], "text": "Einstein played a major role in developing quantum theory, beginning with his 1905 paper on the photoelectric effect. However, he became displeased with modern quantum mechanics as it had evolved after 1925, despite its acceptance by other physicists. He was skeptical that the randomness of quantum mechanics was fundamental rather than the result of determinism, stating that God \"is not playing at dice\". Until the end of his life, he continued to maintain that quantum mechanics was incomplete.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Quantum mechanics", "Bohr versus Einstein"], "text": " The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about [[quantum mechanics]] between Einstein and [[Niels Bohr]], who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the [[philosophy of science]]. Their debates would influence later [[interpretations of quantum mechanics]].", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Quantum mechanics", "Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox"], "text": "In 1935, Einstein returned to quantum mechanics, in particular to the question of its completeness, in the [[EPR paradox|\"EPR paper\"]]. In a [[Einstein's thought experiments|thought experiment]], he considered two particles which had interacted such that their properties were strongly correlated. No matter how far the two particles were separated, a precise position measurement on one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the position of the other particle; likewise a precise momentum measurement of one particle would result in equally precise knowledge of the momentum of the other particle, without needing to disturb the other particle in any way. Given Einstein's concept of [[local realism]], there were two possibilities: (1) either the other particle had these properties already determined, or (2) the process of measuring the first particle instantaneously affected the reality of the position and momentum of the second particle. Einstein rejected this second possibility (popularly called \"spooky action at a distance\"). Einstein's belief in local realism led him to assert that, while the correctness of quantum mechanics was not in question, it must be incomplete. But as a physical principle, local realism was shown to be incorrect when the [[Aspect experiment]] of 1982 confirmed [[Bell's theorem]], which [[J. S. Bell]] had delineated in 1964. The results of these and subsequent experiments demonstrate that quantum physics cannot be represented by any version of the picture of physics in which \"particles are regarded as unconnected independent classical-like entities, each one being unable to communicate with the other after they have separated.\" Although Einstein was wrong about local realism, his clear prediction of the unusual properties of its opposite, [[Quantum entanglement|entangled quantum states]], has resulted in the EPR paper becoming among the top ten papers published in ''[[Physical Review]]''. It is considered a centerpiece of the development of [[quantum information theory]].", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Unified field theory"], "text": "Following his research on general relativity, Einstein attempted to generalize his theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as aspects of a single entity. In 1950, he described his \"[[unified field theory]]\" in a ''[[Scientific American]]'' article titled \"On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation\". Although he was lauded for this work, his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. Notably, Einstein's unification project did not accommodate the [[strong nuclear force|strong]] and [[weak nuclear force]], neither of which were well understood until many years after his death. Although mainstream physics long ignored Einstein's approaches to unification, Einstein's work has motivated modern quests for a [[theory of everything]], in particular [[string theory]], where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Other investigations"], "text": "Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to [[force]], [[superconductivity]], and other research.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Collaboration with other scientists"], "text": "In addition to longtime collaborators [[Leopold Infeld]], [[Nathan Rosen]], [[Peter Bergmann]] and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Collaboration with other scientists", "Einstein–de Haas experiment"], "text": "Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a [[torsion pendulum]]. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron's angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Collaboration with other scientists", "Schrödinger gas model"], "text": "Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a [[Bose–Einstein condensate|Bose–Einstein gas]] by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it. This formulation is a form of [[second quantization]], but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the [[thermodynamic]] properties of a [[Quantum chaos|semiclassical]] [[ideal gas]]. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific career", "Collaboration with other scientists", "Einstein refrigerator"], "text": "In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the [[Einstein refrigerator]]. This [[absorption refrigerator]] was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input. On 11 November 1930, was awarded to Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, and the most promising of their patents were acquired by the Swedish company [[Electrolux]].", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Non-scientific legacy"], "text": "While traveling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to the [[Hebrew University of Jerusalem]]. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986). Barbara Wolff, of the Hebrew University's [[Albert Einstein Archives]], told the [[BBC]] that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955. Einstein's [[Personality rights|right of publicity]] was litigated in 2015 in a federal district court in California. Although the court initially held that the right had expired, that ruling was immediately appealed, and the decision was later vacated in its entirety. The underlying claims between the parties in that lawsuit were ultimately settled. The right is enforceable, and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem is the exclusive representative of that right. [[Branded Entertainment Network|Corbis]], successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the [[Trademark|use of his name and associated imagery]], as agent for the university.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["In popular culture"], "text": "Einstein became one of the most famous [[Scientific celebrity|scientific celebrities]], beginning with the confirmation of his theory of general relativity in 1919. Despite the general public having little understanding of his work, he was widely recognized and received adulation and publicity. In the period before World War II, ''[[The New Yorker]]'' published a vignette in their \"The Talk of the Town\" feature saying that Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain \"that theory\". He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers \"Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.\" Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music. He is a favorite model for depictions of [[absent-minded professor]]; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was \"a cartoonist's dream come true\". Many popular [[quotations]] are often [[False attribution|misattributed]] to him.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Awards and honors"], "text": "Einstein received numerous awards and honors, and in 1922, he was awarded the 1921 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] \"for his services to Theoretical Physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect\". None of the nominations in 1921 met the criteria set by [[Alfred Nobel]], so the 1921 prize was carried forward and awarded to Einstein in 1922.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Publications", "Scientific"], "text": "(-) First of a series of papers on this topic. (-) A reprint of this book was published by Edition Erbrich in 1982, . (-) . Further information about the volumes published so far can be found on the webpages of the Einstein Papers Project and on the [[Princeton University Press]] Einstein Page", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": ["Publications", "Others"], "text": "(-) . The ''chasing a light beam'' thought experiment is described on pages 48–51.", "id": "736", "title": "Albert Einstein", "categories": ["Albert Einstein", "1879 births", "1955 deaths", "20th-century American engineers", "20th-century American physicists", "20th-century American writers", "20th-century German physicists", "Activists from New Jersey", "American agnostics", "American anti-capitalists", "American humanists", "American inventors", "American letter writers", "American Nobel laureates", "American pacifists", "American relativity theorists", "American science writers", "American socialists", "American Zionists", "Articles containing timelines", "Ashkenazi Jews", "Charles University faculty", "Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)", "Cosmologists", "Deaths from abdominal aortic aneurysm", "Determinists", "Disease-related deaths in New Jersey", "Einstein family", "ETH Zurich alumni", "ETH Zurich faculty", "European democratic socialists", "Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences", "Foreign Fellows of the Indian National Science Academy", "Foreign Members of the Royal Society", "German agnostics", "German anti-capitalists", "German emigrants to Switzerland", "German humanists", "German inventors", "German Jews", "German Nobel laureates", "German relativity theorists", "German socialists", "Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences", "Institute for Advanced Study faculty", "Jewish agnostics", "Jewish American physicists", "Jewish emigrants from Nazi Germany to the United States", "Jewish inventors", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "Jewish physicists", "Jewish socialists", "Leiden University faculty", "Mathematicians involved with Mathematische Annalen", "Members of the American Philosophical Society", "Members of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences", "Members of the Lincean Academy", "Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences", "Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences", "Naturalised citizens of Austria", "Naturalised citizens of Switzerland", "Naturalized citizens of the United States", "New Jersey socialists", "Nobel laureates in Physics", "Pantheists", "Patent examiners", "People from Princeton, New Jersey", "People who lost German citizenship", "Philosophers of mathematics", "Philosophers of science", "Philosophy of science", "Quantum physicists", "Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society", "Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)", "Scientists from Munich", "Spinozists", "Stateless people", "Swiss agnostics", "Swiss emigrants to the United States", "Swiss Jews", "Swiss physicists", "Winners of the Max Planck Medal", "World federalists"], "seealso": ["List of peace activists", "Albert Einstein House", "Heinrich Burkhardt", "List of German inventors and discoverers", "History of gravitational theory", "Einstein notation", "Princeton University", "Jewish Nobel laureates", "The Einstein Theory of Relativity", "List of coupled cousins", "Frist Campus Center", "Sticky bead argument", "Relativity priority dispute", "Einstein's thought experiments", "Bern Historical Museum"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Afghanistan''' (; [[Pashto]]/[[Dari language|Dari]]: , Pashto: , Dari: ), officially the '''Islamic Republic of Afghanistan''', is a [[landlocked country]] at the crossroads of [[Central Asia|Central]] and [[South Asia]]. Afghanistan is bordered by [[Pakistan]] to the east and south; [[Iran]] to the west; [[Turkmenistan]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Tajikistan]] to the north; and [[China]] to the northeast. Occupying , it is a mountainous country with plains in the north and southwest. [[Kabul]] is the capital and largest city. Its population is around 32 million, composed mostly of ethnic [[Pashtuns]], [[Tajiks]], [[Hazaras]], and [[Uzbeks]]. Humans lived in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago. [[Neolithic|Settled life]] emerged in the region 9,000 years ago, evolving gradually into the [[Indus civilization]] ([[Shortugai]] site), the [[Oxus civilization]] (Dashlyji site), and the [[Helmand civilization]] ([[Mundigak]] site) of the 3rd millennium BCE. [[Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryans]] migrated through [[Bactria]]-[[Margiana]] area to [[Gandhara]], followed by the rise of the [[Iron Age]] [[Yaz culture|Yaz I culture]] (ca. 1500–1100 BCE), which has been closely associated with the culture depicted in the [[Avesta]], the ancient religious texts of [[Zoroastrianism]]. The region, then known as \"[[Ariana]]\", fell to [[Achaemenid]] Persians in the 6th century BCE, who conquered the areas to their east [[Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|as far as the Indus River]]. [[Alexander the Great]] invaded the region in the 4th century BCE, who married [[Roxana]] in Bactria before his [[Cophen campaign|Kabul Valley campaign]], where he faced resistance from [[Aspasioi]] and Assakan tribes. The [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] became the eastern end of the [[Hellenistic world]]. Following the conquest by [[Mauryan]] Indians, [[Buddhism in Afghanistan|Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism in Afghanistan|Hinduism]] flourished in the region for centuries. The [[Kushan]] emperor [[Kanishka]], who ruled from his twin capitals of [[Kapisi]] and [[Puruṣapura]], played an important role in the spread of [[Mahayana]] Buddhism to China and Central Asia. Various other Buddhist dynasties originated from this region as well, including the [[Kidarites]], [[Hephthalites]], [[Alkhons]], [[Nezak]], [[Zunbils]] and [[Turk Shahi]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "[[Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|Muslims brought Islam]] to [[Sassanian]]-held [[Herat]] and [[Zaranj]] in the mid-7th century, while fuller Islamization was achieved between the 9th and 12th centuries under the [[Saffarid]], [[Samanid]], [[Ghaznavid]], and [[Ghurid]] dynasties. Parts of the region were later ruled by the [[Khwarazmian Empire|Khwarazmian]], [[Khalji]], [[Timurid Empire|Timurid]], [[Lodi dynasty|Lodi]], [[Sur Empire|Sur]], [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]], and [[Safavid]] empires. The political history of the modern state of Afghanistan began with the [[Hotak dynasty]], whose founder [[Mirwais Hotak]] declared southern Afghanistan independent in 1709. In 1747, [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] established the [[Durrani Empire]] with its capital at [[Kandahar]]. In 1776, the Durrani capital was moved to Kabul while [[Peshawar]] became the winter capital; the latter was [[Battle of Nowshera|lost to Sikhs in 1823]]. In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a [[buffer state]] in the \"[[Great Game]]\" between British India and the Russian Empire. In the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]], the [[British East India Company]] seized control of Afghanistan briefly, but following the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]] in 1919 the country was free of foreign influence, eventually becoming a monarchy under [[Amanullah Khan]], until almost 50 years later when [[Zahir Shah]] was overthrown and a republic was established. In 1978, after a second coup, Afghanistan first became a socialist state, evoking the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] in the 1980s against [[Mujahideen#Afghanistan|mujahideen]] rebels. By 1996, most of the country was captured by the Islamic fundamentalist [[Taliban]], who ruled as a totalitarian regime for over five years; they were removed from power after the [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|US invasion]] in 2001 but still control a significant portion of the country. The [[War in Afghanistan (2001-present)|ongoing war]] between the government and the Taliban has contributed to the perpetuation of Afghanistan's problematic [[Human rights in Afghanistan|human rights record]] including complications of [[Women's rights in Afghanistan|women's rights]], with numerous abuses committed by both sides, such as the killing of civilians. Afghanistan is a unitary presidential [[Islamic republic]]. The country has high levels of [[terrorism]], poverty, child malnutrition, and corruption. It is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]], the [[Group of 77]], the [[Economic Cooperation Organization]], and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. Afghanistan's economy is the world's 96th largest, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $72.9 billion by [[purchasing power parity]]; the country fares much worse in terms of per-capita GDP (PPP), ranking 169th out of 186 countries as of 2018.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The [[root (linguistics)|root]] name \"[[Afghan (ethnonym)|''Afghān'']]\" is, according to some scholars, derived from the name of the ''[[Aśvaka]]'' or ''Assakan'', ancient inhabitants of the [[Hindu Kush]] region. ''Aśvakan'' literally means \"horsemen\", \"horse breeders\", or \"[[cavalry]]\" (from ''[[aśva]]'' or ''aspa'', the [[Sanskrit]] and [[Avestan]] words for \"[[horse]]\"). Historically, the ethnonym ''Afghān'' was used to refer to ethnic [[Pashtuns]]. The Arabic and Persian form of the name, ''Afġān'' was first attested in the 10th-century geography book ''[[Hudud al-'Alam]]''. The last part of the name, \"''[[-stan]]''\" is a Persian suffix for \"place of\". Therefore, \"Afghanistan\" translates to \"land of the Afghans\", or \"land of the Pashtuns\" in a historical sense. According to the third edition of the ''[[Encyclopedia of Islam]]'': The modern [[Constitution of Afghanistan]] states that the word \"Afghan\" shall apply to every [[Demographics of Afghanistan|citizen of Afghanistan]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "Many empires and kingdoms have also risen to power in Afghanistan, such as the [[Greco-Bactrians]], [[Indo-Scythians]], [[Kushan]], [[Kidarites]], [[Hephthalites]], [[Alkhons]], [[Nezaks]], [[Zunbils]], [[Turk Shahi]], [[Hindu Shahi]], [[Lawiks]], [[Saffarids]], [[Samanids]], [[Ghaznavids]], [[Ghurids]], [[Khwarazmians]], [[Khalji]], [[Kartids]], [[Lodi dynasty|Lodis]], [[Sur Empire|Surs]], [[Mughals]], and finally, the [[Hotak dynasty|Hotak]] and [[Durrani dynasty|Durrani]] dynasties, which marked the political origins of the modern state. Throughout millennia several cities within the modern day Afghanistan served as capitals of various empires, namely Bactra ([[Balkh]]), Alexandria on the Oxus ([[Ai-Khanoum]]), [[Kapisi]], [[Sigal, Sakastan|Sigal]], [[Kabul]], [[Kunduz]], [[Zaranj]], [[Firozkoh]], [[Herat]], Ghazna ([[Ghazni]]), Binban ([[Bamyan]]), and [[Kandahar]]. The country sits at a unique nexus point where numerous civilizations have interacted and often fought. It has been home to various peoples through the ages, among them the [[ancient Iranian peoples]] who established the dominant role of [[Indo-Iranian languages]] in the region. At multiple points, the land has been incorporated within vast regional empires, among them the [[Achaemenid Empire]], the [[Macedonian Empire]], the [[Maurya Empire]], and the [[Islamic Empire]]. For its success in resisting foreign occupation during the 19th and 20th centuries, Afghanistan has been called the \"graveyard of empires\", though it is unknown who coined the phrase.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Prehistory and antiquity"], "text": "[[Excavations]] of prehistoric sites suggest that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities in the area were among the earliest in the world. An important site of early historical activities, many believe that Afghanistan compares to [[Egypt]] in terms of the historical value of its archaeological sites. [[Archaeological]] exploration done in the 20th century suggests that the geographical area of Afghanistan has been closely connected by culture and trade with its neighbors to the east, west, and north. Artifacts typical of the [[Paleolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], [[Neolithic]], [[Bronze Age|Bronze]], and [[Iron Age]] have been found in Afghanistan. Urban civilization is believed to have begun as early as 3000 BCE, and the early city of [[Mundigak]] (near [[Kandahar]] in the south of the country) was a center of the [[Helmand culture]]. More recent findings established that the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] stretched up towards modern-day Afghanistan, making the ancient civilization today part of Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India. In more detail, it extended from what today is northwest [[Pakistan]] to northwest India and northeast Afghanistan. An Indus Valley site has been found on the [[Oxus River]] at [[Shortugai]] in northern Afghanistan. There are several smaller IVC colonies to be found in Afghanistan as well. After 2000 BCE, successive waves of semi-nomadic people from Central Asia began moving south into Afghanistan; among them were many [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]-speaking [[Indo-Iranians]]. These tribes later migrated further into South Asia, Western Asia, and toward Europe via the area north of the [[Caspian Sea]]. The region at the time was referred to as [[Ariana]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Prehistory and antiquity", "Zoroastrianism and Hellenic era"], "text": "The religion [[Zoroastrianism]] is believed by some to have originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 and 800 BCE, as its founder [[Zoroaster]] is thought to have lived and died in [[Balkh]]. Ancient [[Eastern Iranian languages]] may have been spoken in the region around the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism. By the middle of the 6th century BCE, the Achaemenids overthrew the [[Medes]] and incorporated [[Arachosia]], [[Aria (satrapy)|Aria]], and [[Bactria]] within its eastern boundaries. An [[Epigraphy|inscription]] on the tombstone of [[Darius I of Persia]] mentions the [[Kabulistan|Kabul Valley]] in a list of the 29 countries that he had conquered.. The region of [[Arachosia]], around Kandahar in modern day southern Afghanistan, used to be primarily Zoroastrian and played a key role in the transfer of the Avesta to [[Persis|Persia]] and is thus considered by some to be the \"second homeland of Zoroastriansm\".. [[Alexander the Great]] and his Macedonian forces arrived in Afghanistan in 330 BCE after defeating [[Darius III of Persia]] a year earlier in the [[Battle of Gaugamela]]. Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the [[Seleucid Empire]] controlled the region until 305 BCE when they gave much of it to the [[Maurya Empire]] as part of an alliance treaty. The Mauryans controlled the area south of the [[Hindu Kush]] until they were overthrown in about 185 BCE. Their decline began 60 years after [[Ashoka]]'s rule ended, leading to the [[Hellenistic]] reconquest by the [[Greco-Bactrians]]. Much of it soon broke away from them and became part of the [[Indo-Greek Kingdom]]. They were defeated and expelled by the [[Indo-Scythians]] in the late 2nd century BCE.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Prehistory and antiquity", "Hindu and Buddhist era"], "text": "The [[Silk Road]] appeared during the first century BCE, and Afghanistan flourished with trade, with routes to China, India, Persia and north to the cities of [[Bukhara]], [[Samarkand]] and [[Khiva]] in present-day Uzbekistan. Goods and ideas were exchanged at this center point, such as Chinese silk, Persian silver and Roman gold, while the region of present Afghanistan was mining and trading [[lapis lazuli]] stones mainly from the [[Badakhshan]] region. During the first century BCE, the [[Parthian Empire]] subjugated the region but lost it to their [[Indo-Parthian]] vassals. In the mid-to-late first century CE the vast [[Kushan Empire]], centered in Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture, making [[Buddhism]] flourish throughout the region. The Kushans were overthrown by the [[Sassanids]] in the 3rd century CE, though the [[Indo-Sassanids]] continued to rule at least parts of the region. They were followed by the [[Kidarite]] who, in turn, were replaced by the [[Hephthalites]]. They were replaced by the [[Turk Shahi]] in the 7th century. The Buddhist Turk Shahi of Kabul was replaced by a Hindu dynasty before the Saffarids conquered the area in 870, this Hindu dynasty was called [[Hindu Shahi]]. Much of the northeastern and southern areas of the country remained dominated by [[Buddhist]] culture.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Medieval history", "Islamic conquest"], "text": "[[Arab]] [[Muslim]] brought Islam to [[Herat]] and [[Zaranj]] in 642 CE and began spreading eastward; some of the native inhabitants they encountered accepted it while others revolted. Before Islam was introduced, people of the region were mostly Buddhists and Zoroastrians, but there were also [[Surya]] and [[Nana (Afghan goddess)|Nana]] worshipers, [[History of the Jews in Afghanistan|Jews]], and others. The [[Zunbils]] and Kabul Shahi were first conquered in 870 CE by the [[Saffarid]] Muslims of Zaranj. Later, the [[Samanids]] extended their Islamic influence south of the [[Hindu]] Kush. It is reported that Muslims and non-Muslims still lived side by side in Kabul before the [[Ghaznavids]] rose to power in the 10th century. By the 11th century, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]] defeated the remaining Hindu rulers and effectively [[Islamized]] the wider region, with the exception of [[Kafiristan]]. Mahmud made [[Ghazni]] into an important city and patronized intellectuals such as the historian [[Al-Biruni]] and the poet [[Ferdowsi]]. The [[Ghaznavid dynasty]] was overthrown by the [[Ghurids]], whose architectural achievements included the remote [[Minaret of Jam]]. The Ghurids controlled Afghanistan for less than a century before being conquered by the [[Khwarazmian dynasty]] in 1215.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Medieval history", "Mongols and Babur"], "text": "In 1219 AD, [[Genghis Khan]] and his [[Mongol conquest of the Khwarazmian Empire|Mongol army overran the region]]. His troops are said to have annihilated the Khwarazmian cities of [[Herat]] and [[Balkh]] as well as [[Bamyan, Afghanistan|Bamyan]]. The destruction caused by the Mongols forced many locals to return to an agrarian rural society. Mongol rule continued with the [[Ilkhanate]] in the northwest while the [[Khalji dynasty]] administered the Afghan tribal areas south of the Hindu Kush until the invasion of [[Timur]] (aka Tamerlane), who established the [[Timurid Empire]] in 1370. Under the rule of [[Shah Rukh]] the city served as the focal point of the [[Timurid Renaissance]], whose glory matched [[Florence]] of the [[Italian Renaissance]] as the center of a cultural rebirth. In the early 16th century, [[Babur]] arrived from [[Ferghana]] and captured Kabul from the [[Arghun dynasty]]. Between the 16th and 18th century, the Uzbek [[Khanate of Bukhara]], Iranian [[Safavids]], and Indian [[Mughals]] ruled parts of the territory. During the Medieval Period, the northwestern area of Afghanistan was referred to by the regional name [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. Two of the four capitals of Khorasan ([[Herat]] and [[Balkh]]) are now located in Afghanistan, while the regions of [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]], [[Zabulistan]], [[Ghazni]], [[Kabulistan]], and [[name of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] formed the [[frontier]] between Khorasan and [[Hindustan]]. However, up to the 19th century the term Khorasan was commonly used among natives to describe their country; [[Sir George Elphinstone]] wrote with amazement that the country known to outsiders as \"Afghanistan\" was referred to by its own inhabitants as \"Khorasan\" and that the first Afghan official whom he met at the border welcomed him to Khorasan.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Modern history", "Hotak and Durrani dynasties"], "text": "In 1709, [[Mirwais Hotak]], a local [[Ghilzai]] tribal leader, successfully rebelled against the Safavids. He defeated [[Gurgin Khan]] and established his own kingdom. Mirwais died of natural causes in 1715 and was succeeded by his brother [[Abdul Aziz Hotak|Abdul Aziz]], who was soon killed by Mirwais' son [[Mahmud Hotak|Mahmud]] for treason. Mahmud led the Afghan army in 1722 to the Persian capital of [[Isfahan]], captured the city after the [[Battle of Gulnabad]] and proclaimed himself King of Persia. The Afghan dynasty was ousted from Persia by [[Nader Shah]] after the 1729 [[Battle of Damghan (1729)|Battle of Damghan]]. In 1738, Nader Shah and his [[Afsharid dynasty|forces]] captured Kandahar, the last Hotak stronghold, from Shah [[Hussain Hotak]], at which point the incarcerated 16-year-old [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] was freed and made the commander of an Afghan regiment. Soon after, the Persian and Afghan forces [[Nader Shah's invasion of India|invaded India]]. By 1747, the [[Afghans]] chose Durrani as their head of state. Durrani and his Afghan army conquered much of present-day Afghanistan, [[Pakistan]], the [[Khorasan Province|Khorasan]] and [[Quhistan|Kohistan]] provinces of Iran, and Delhi in India. He defeated the Indian [[Maratha Empire]], and one of his biggest victories was the [[Battle of Panipat (1761)|1761 Battle of Panipat]]. In October 1772, Durrani died of natural causes and was buried at a site now adjacent to the [[Shrine of the Cloak]] in Kandahar. He was succeeded by his son, [[Timur Shah]], who transferred the capital of his kingdom from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776, with [[Peshawar]] becoming the [[winter capital]]. After Timur's death in 1793, the Durrani throne passed down to his son [[Zaman Shah]], followed by [[Mahmud Shah Durrani|Mahmud Shah]], [[Shuja Shah]] and others.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Modern history", "Barakzai dynasty and British wars"], "text": "By the early 19th century, the Afghan empire was under threat from the [[Qajar dynasty|Persians]] in the west and the [[Sikh Empire]] in the east. Fateh Khan, leader of the [[Barakzai dynasty|Barakzai tribe]], had installed 21 of his brothers in positions of power throughout the empire. After his death, they rebelled and divided up the provinces of the empire between themselves. During this turbulent period, Afghanistan had many temporary rulers until [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] declared himself emir in 1823. [[Punjab]] and [[Kashmir]] were lost to [[Ranjit Singh]], who invaded [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] in March 1823 and captured the city of [[Peshawar]] at the [[Battle of Nowshera]]. In 1837, during the [[Battle of Jamrud]] near the [[Khyber Pass]], [[Wazir Akbar Khan|Akbar Khan]] and the Afghan army failed to capture the [[Jamrud Fort]] from the [[Sikh Khalsa Army]], but killed Sikh Commander [[Hari Singh Nalwa]], thus ending the [[Afghan-Sikh Wars]]. By this time the British were advancing from the east and the [[First Anglo-Afghan War|first major conflict]] during \"[[The Great Game]]\" was initiated. In 1838, the British marched into Afghanistan and arrested [[Dost Mohammad Khan (Emir of Afghanistan)|Dost Mohammad]], sent him into exile in India and replaced him with the previous ruler, [[Shah Shuja Durrani|Shah Shuja]]. Following an uprising, the [[1842 retreat from Kabul]] of British-Indian forces and the annihilation of [[William George Keith Elphinstone|Elphinstone]]'s army, and the [[Battle of Kabul (1842)|Battle of Kabul]] that led to its recapture, the British placed Dost Mohammad Khan back into power and withdrew their military forces from Afghanistan. In 1878, the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] was fought over perceived Russian influence, [[Abdur Rahman Khan]] replaced [[Mohammad Ayub Khan (Emir of Afghanistan)|Ayub Khan]], and Britain gained control of Afghanistan's foreign relations as part of the [[Treaty of Gandamak]] of 1879. In 1893, [[Mortimer Durand]] made Amir Abdur Rahman Khan sign a controversial agreement in which the ethnic [[Pashtun]] and [[Baloch people|Baloch]] territories were divided by the [[Durand Line]]. This was a standard [[divide and rule]] policy of the British and would lead to strained relations, especially with the later new state of Pakistan. [[Shia Islam in Afghanistan|Shia]]-dominated [[Hazarajat]] and pagan [[Kafiristan]] remained politically independent until being [[Muslim conquests of Afghanistan|conquered]] by Abdur Rahman Khan in 1891–1896. He was known as the \"Iron Amir\" for his features and his ruthless methods against tribes. The ''Iron Amir'' viewed railway and telegraph lines coming from the Russian and British empires as \"[[trojan horse]]\" and therefore prevented railway development in Afghanistan. He died in 1901, replaced by his son [[Habibullah Khan]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Modern history", "Barakzai dynasty and British wars"], "text": "During [[World War I]], when Afghanistan was neutral, Habibullah Khan was met by officials of the Central Powers in the [[Niedermayer–Hentig Expedition]], to declare full independence from the United Kingdom, join them and attack British India, as part of the [[Hindu–German Conspiracy]]. Their efforts to bring Afghanistan into the Central Powers failed, but it caused discontent among the population for keeping neutrality against the British. Habibullah was assassinated during a hunting trip in 1919, and [[Amanullah Khan]] eventually assumed power. A staunch supporter of the 1915–1916 expeditions, Amanullah Khan evoked the [[Third Anglo-Afghan War]], entering British India via the [[Khyber Pass]]. After the end Third Anglo-Afghan War and the signing of the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919|Treaty of Rawalpindi]] on 19 August 1919, King Amanullah Khan declared Afghanistan a [[sovereign state|sovereign]] and fully [[independent state]]. He moved to end his country's traditional isolation by establishing diplomatic relations with the international community, particularly with the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Weimar Republic]] of Germany. Following a 1927–28 tour of Europe and [[Turkey]], he introduced several reforms intended to modernize his nation. A key force behind these reforms was [[Mahmud Tarzi]], an ardent supporter of the education of women. He fought for Article 68 of Afghanistan's 1923 [[constitution of Afghanistan|constitution]], which made elementary education compulsory. The institution of [[slavery]] was abolished in 1923. Khan's wife Queen [[Soraya Tarzi]] was a figure during this period. Some of the reforms that were put in place, such as the abolition of the traditional [[burqa]] for women and the opening of several co-educational schools, quickly alienated many tribal and religious leaders, and this led to the [[Afghan Civil War (1928–1929)]]. Faced with the overwhelming armed opposition, Amanullah Khan abdicated in January 1929, and soon after Kabul fell to [[Saqqawist]] forces led by [[Habibullah Kalakani]]. Prince [[Mohammed Nadir Shah]], Amanullah's cousin, in turn defeated and killed Kalakani in October 1929, and was declared King Nadir Shah. He abandoned the reforms of Amanullah Khan in favor of a more gradual approach to modernization but was assassinated in 1933 by [[Abdul Khaliq Hazara (assassin)|Abdul Khaliq]], a fifteen-year-old [[Hazara people|Hazara]] student who was an [[Amanullah loyalist]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Modern history", "Barakzai dynasty and British wars"], "text": "[[Mohammed Zahir Shah]], Nadir Shah's 19-year-old son, succeeded to the throne and reigned from 1933 to 1973. The [[Afghan tribal revolts of 1944–1947|tribal revolts of 1944–1947]] saw Zahir Shah's reign being challenged by [[Zadran (Pashtun tribe)|Zadran]], [[Safi (Pashtun tribe)|Safi]], [[Mangal (Pashtun tribe)|Mangal]], and [[Wazir (Pashtun tribe)|Wazir]] tribesmen led by [[Mazrak Zadran]], [[Salemai]], and [[Faqir Ipi|Mirzali Khan]], among others, many of whom were [[Amanullah loyalist]]. Close relations with the Muslim states [[Turkey]], the [[Kingdom of Iraq]] and [[Pahlavi dynasty|Iran/Persia]] were also pursued, while further international relations were sought by joining the [[League of Nations]] in 1934. The 1930s saw the development of roads, infrastructure, the founding of a [[Da Afghanistan Bank|national bank]], and increased education. Road links in the north played a large part in a growing cotton and textile industry. The country built close relationships with the [[Axis powers]], with Germany having the largest share in Afghan development at the time, along with [[Afghanistan-Italy relations|Italy]] and [[Afghanistan-Japan relations|Japan]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Contemporary history"], "text": "Until 1946, Zahir Shah ruled with the assistance of his uncle, who held the post of [[Prime Minister of Afghanistan|Prime Minister]] and continued the policies of Nadir Shah. Another of Zahir Shah's uncles, [[Shah Mahmud Khan]], became Prime Minister in 1946 and began an experiment allowing greater political freedom, but reversed the policy when it went further than he expected. He was replaced in 1953 by [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], the king's cousin and brother-in-law, and a [[Pashtun]] nationalist who sought the creation of a [[Pashtunistan]], leading to highly tense relations with Pakistan. During his ten years at the post until 1963, Daoud Khan pressed for social modernization reforms and sought a closer relationship with the [[Soviet Union]]. Afterward, the [[1964 Constitution of Afghanistan|1964 constitution]] was formed, and the first non-royal Prime Minister was sworn in. King Zahir Shah, like his father Nadir Shah, had a policy of maintaining national independence while pursuing gradual modernization, creating nationalist feeling, and improving relations with the United Kingdom. However, Afghanistan remained neutral and was neither a participant in [[World War II]] nor aligned with either power bloc in the [[Cold War]] thereafter. However, it was a beneficiary of the latter rivalry as both the Soviet Union and the United States vied for influence by building Afghanistan's main highways, airports, and other vital infrastructure in the post-period. On a per capita basis, Afghanistan received more Soviet [[development aid]] than any other country. Afghanistan had, therefore, good relations with both Cold War enemies. In 1973, while the King was in Italy, Daoud Khan launched a [[1973 Afghan coup|bloodless coup]] and became the first [[President of Afghanistan]], abolishing the monarchy.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Contemporary history", "Democratic Republic regime and Soviet war"], "text": "In April 1978, the communist [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan]] (PDPA) seized power in a bloody coup d'état against then-President [[Mohammed Daoud Khan]], in what is called the [[Saur Revolution]]. The PDPA declared the establishment of the [[Democratic Republic of Afghanistan]], with its first leader named as [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|People's Democratic Party]] general secretary [[Nur Muhammad Taraki]]. This would trigger a series of events that would dramatically turn Afghanistan from a poor and secluded (albeit peaceful) country to a hotbed of international terrorism. The PDPA initiated various social, symbolic and land distribution reforms that provoked strong opposition, while also brutally oppressing political dissidents. This caused unrest and quickly expanded into a state of [[War in Afghanistan (1978–present)|civil war]] by 1979, waged by guerrilla ''[[mujahideen]]'' (and smaller [[Maoist]] guerillas) against regime forces countrywide. It quickly turned into a [[proxy war]] as the Pakistani government provided these rebels with covert training centers, the United States [[Operation Cyclone|supported]] them through Pakistan's [[Inter-Services Intelligence]] (ISI), and the [[Soviet Union]] sent thousands of military advisers to support the PDPA regime. Meanwhile, there was increasingly hostile friction between the competing factions of the PDPA – the dominant [[Khalq]] and the more moderate [[Parcham]]. In September 1979, PDPA General Secretary Taraki was assassinated in an internal coup orchestrated by fellow Khalq member, then-Prime minister [[Hafizullah Amin]], who assumed the new general secretary of the [[People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan|People's Democratic Party]]. The situation in the country deteriorated under Amin and thousands of people went missing. Displeased with Amin's government, the [[Soviet Army]] invaded the country in December 1979, heading for Kabul and killing Amin just 3 days later. A Soviet-organized regime, led by Parcham's [[Babrak Karmal]] but inclusive of both factions (Parcham and Khalq), filled the vacuum. Soviet troops in more substantial numbers were deployed to stabilize Afghanistan under Karmal, marking the beginning of the [[Soviet–Afghan War]]. The United States and Pakistan, along with smaller actors like [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[China]], continued supporting the rebels, delivering billions of dollars in cash and weapons including two thousand [[FIM-92 Stinger]] [[surface-to-air missiles]]. Lasting nine years, the war caused the deaths of between 562,000 and 2 million Afghans, and displaced about 6 million people who subsequently fled Afghanistan, mainly to [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]]. Heavy air bombardment destroyed many countryside villages, millions of [[landmine]] were planted, and some cities such as [[Herat]] and [[Kandahar]] were also damaged from bombardment. Pakistan's [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa|North-West Frontier Province]] functioned as an organisational and networking base for the anti-Soviet Afghan resistance, with the province's influential [[Deobandi]] ulama playing a major supporting role in promoting the 'jihad'. After the [[Soviet withdrawal from Afghanistan|Soviet withdrawal]], the [[Afghan Civil War (1989-92)|civil war ensued]] until the communist regime under People's Democratic Party leader [[Mohammad Najibullah]] collapsed in 1992.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Contemporary history", "Post-Cold War conflict and Taliban regime"], "text": "Another civil war broke out after the [[Peshawar Accords|creation]] of a dysfunctional coalition [[Islamic State of Afghanistan|government]] between leaders of various ''mujahideen'' factions. Amid a state of [[anarchy]] and factional infighting, various ''mujahideen'' factions committed widespread rape, murder and extortion, while Kabul was heavily bombarded and partially destroyed by the fighting. Several failed reconciliations and alliances occurred between different leaders. The [[Taliban]] emerged in September 1994 as a movement and militia of students (''talib'') from Islamic [[Madrassas in Pakistan|madrassas (schools) in Pakistan]], who soon had military support from Pakistan. Taking control of [[Kandahar]] city that year, they conquered more territories until finally driving out the government of [[Burhanuddin Rabbani|Rabbani]] from Kabul in 1996, where they established an [[Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan|emirate]] that gained international recognition from only three countries. The Taliban were condemned internationally for the harsh enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic [[sharia]] law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of many Afghans, especially [[Taliban treatment of women|women]]. During their rule, the Taliban and their allies committed massacres against Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to starving civilians and conducted a policy of [[scorched earth]], burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying tens of thousands of homes. [[Battle of Kabul (1992–96)|After the fall of Kabul]] to the Taliban, [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] and [[Abdul Rashid Dostum]] formed the [[Northern Alliance]], later joined by others, to resist the Taliban. Dostum's forces were defeated by the Taliban during the [[Battles of Mazar-i-Sharif (1997–98)]]; Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, [[Pervez Musharraf]], began sending thousands of Pakistanis to help the Taliban defeat the Northern Alliance.<ref name=\"Ahmed Rashid/The Telegraph\"></ref> By 2000 the Northern Alliance only controlled 10% of territory, cornered in the north-east. On 9 September 2001, Massoud was assassinated by two Arab [[suicide attack]] in [[Panjshir Valley]]. Around 400,000 Afghans died in internal conflicts between 1990 and 2001. In October 2001, the [[United States invasion of Afghanistan|United States invaded Afghanistan]] to remove the Taliban from power after they refused to hand over [[Osama Bin Laden]], the prime suspect of the [[September 11 attacks]], who was a \"guest\" of the Taliban and was operating his [[al-Qaeda]] network in Afghanistan. The majority of Afghans supported the American invasion of their country. During the initial invasion, US and UK forces bombed al-Qaeda training camps, and later working with the Northern Alliance, the Taliban regime came to an end.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Contemporary history", "Post-2001"], "text": "In December 2001, after the Taliban government was overthrown, the [[Afghan Interim Administration]] under [[Hamid Karzai]] was formed. The [[International Security Assistance Force]] (ISAF) was established by the [[UN Security Council]] to help assist the [[Karzai administration]] and provide basic security. By this time, after two decades of war as well as an acute [[famine]] at the time, Afghanistan had one of the highest [[infant mortality|infant]] and child mortality rates in the world, the lowest life expectancy, much of the population were hungry, and infrastructure was in ruins. Many foreign donors started providing aid and assistance to rebuild the war-torn country. Taliban forces meanwhile began regrouping inside Pakistan, while more coalition troops entered Afghanistan to help the rebuilding process. The [[Taliban insurgency|Taliban began an insurgency]] to regain control of Afghanistan. Over the next decade, ISAF and [[Afghan National Army|Afghan troops]] led many offensives against the Taliban, but failed to fully defeat them. Afghanistan remains one of the poorest countries in the world because of a lack of foreign investment, [[Corruption in Afghanistan|government corruption]], and the Taliban insurgency. Meanwhile, Karzai attempted to unite the peoples of the country, and the [[Afghan government]] was able to build some democratic structures, adopting a constitution in 2004 with the name Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Attempts were made, often with the support of foreign donor countries, to improve the country's economy, healthcare, education, transport, and agriculture. ISAF forces also began to train the [[Afghan National Security Forces]]. Following 2002, nearly five million [[Afghan diaspora|Afghans]] were [[repatriated]]. The number of NATO troops present in Afghanistan peaked at 140,000 in 2011, dropping to about 16,000 in 2018. In September 2014 [[Ashraf Ghani]] became president after the [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]] where for the first time in Afghanistan's history power was democratically transferred. On 28 December 2014, NATO formally ended ISAF combat operations in Afghanistan and transferred full security responsibility to the Afghan government. The NATO-led [[Operation Resolute Support]] was formed the same day as a successor to ISAF. Thousands of NATO troops remained in the country to train and advise Afghan government forces and continue their fight against the Taliban. It was estimated in 2015 that \"about 147,000 people have been killed in the Afghanistan war since 2001. More than 38,000 of those killed have been civilians\". A report titled ''Body Count'' concluded that 106,000–170,000 civilians have been killed as a result of the fighting in Afghanistan at the hands of all parties to the conflict.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Afghanistan is located in Southern-Central Asia. indeed the region particularly centered at Afghanistan is considered the \"crossroads of Asia\", and the country has had the nickname Heart of Asia. The renowned [[Urdu]] poet [[Allama Iqbal]] once wrote about the country: At over , Afghanistan is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|41st largest country]], slightly bigger than France and smaller than Myanmar, and about the size of Texas in the United States. There is no coastline, as Afghanistan is [[landlocked]]. It shares borders with Pakistan in the south and east (including Indian-claimed [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]); Iran in the west; Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan in the north; and China in the far east. The geography in Afghanistan is varied, but is mostly mountainous and rugged, with some unusual mountain ridges accompanied by plateaus and river basins. It is dominated by the [[Hindu Kush]] range, the western extension of the [[Himalayas]] that stretches to eastern [[Tibet]] via the [[Pamir Mountains]] and [[Karakoram Mountains]] in Afghanistan's far north-east. Most of the highest points are in the east consisting of fertile mountain valleys. The Hindu Kush ends at the west-central highlands, creating plains in the north and southwest, namely the [[Turkestan]] Plains and the [[Sistan Basin]]; these two regions consist of rolling grasslands and semi-deserts, and hot windy deserts, respectively. Forests exist in the corridor between [[Nuristan]] and [[Paktika]] provinces, and [[tundra]] in the north-east. The country's highest point is [[Noshaq]], at above sea level. The lowest point lies in [[Jowzjan Province]] along the Amu River bank, at above sea level. Despite having numerous rivers and [[list of dams and reservoirs in Afghanistan|reservoirs]], large parts of the country are dry. The [[endorheic]] Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world. The [[Amu Darya]] rises at the north of the Hindu Kush, while the nearby [[Hari Rud]] flows west towards [[Herat]], and the [[Arghandab River]] from the central region southwards. To the south and west of the Hindu Kush flow a number of streams that are tributaries of the [[Indus River]], such as the [[Helmand River]]. One exception is the [[Kabul River]] which flows in an easternly direction to the Indus ending at the Indian Ocean. Afghanistan receives heavy snow during the winter in the [[Hindu Kush]] and [[Pamir Mountains]], and the melting snow in the spring season enters the [[list of rivers of Afghanistan|rivers, lakes, and streams]]. However, two-thirds of the country's water flows into the neighboring countries of [[Iran]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Turkmenistan]]. As reported in 2010, the state needs more than to rehabilitate its irrigation systems so that the water is properly managed.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "The northeastern Hindu Kush [[mountain range]], in and around the [[Badakhshan Province]] of Afghanistan, is in a [[natural environment#Geological activity|geologically active]] area where earthquakes may occur almost every year. They can be deadly and destructive, causing [[landslide]] in some parts or [[2009 Afghan avalanches|avalanches]] during the winter. The last strong earthquakes were in [[February 1998 Afghanistan earthquake|1998]], which killed about 6,000 people in Badakhshan near Tajikistan. This was followed by the [[2002 Hindu Kush earthquakes]] in which over 150 people were killed and over 1,000 injured. A [[2010 Afghanistan earthquake|2010 earthquake]] left 11 Afghans dead, over 70 injured, and more than 2,000 houses destroyed.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "Afghanistan has a [[continental climate]] with harsh winters in the [[Hazarajat|central highlands]], the glaciated northeast (around [[Nuristan]]), and the [[Wakhan Corridor]], where the average temperature in January is below and can reach , and hot summers in the low-lying areas of the [[Sistan Basin]] of the southwest, the [[Jalalabad]] basin in the east, and the [[Afghan Turkestan|Turkestan]] plains along the [[Amu River]] in the north, where temperatures average over in July and can go over . The country is generally [[arid]] in the summers, with most rainfall falling between December and April. The lower areas of northern and western Afghanistan are the driest, with precipitation more common in the east. Although proximate to India, Afghanistan is mostly outside the [[monsoon]] zone, except the [[Nuristan Province]] which occasionally receives summer monsoon rain.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Biodiversity"], "text": "Several types of [[mammal]] exist throughout Afghanistan. [[Snow leopard]], [[Siberian tiger]] and [[brown bear]] live in the high elevation [[alpine tundra]] regions. The [[Marco Polo sheep]] exclusively live in the [[Wakhan Corridor]] region of north-east Afghanistan. [[Fox]], [[wolves]], [[otter]], [[deer]], [[wild sheep]], [[lynx]] and other big cats populate the mountain forest region of the east. In the semi-desert northern plains, wildlife include a variety of birds, [[hedgehog]], [[gopher]], and large carnivores such as [[jackal]] and [[hyena]]. [[Gazelle]], [[wild boar|wild pigs]] and jackals populate the [[steppe]] plains of the south and west, while [[mongoose]] and [[cheetah]] exist in the semi-desert south. [[Marmot]] and [[ibex]] also live in the high mountains of Afghanistan, and [[pheasant]] exist in some parts of the country. The [[Afghan hound]] is a native breed of dog known for its fast speed and its long hair; it is relatively known in the west. [[Endemic]] fauna of Afghanistan includes the [[Afghan flying squirrel]], [[Afghan snowfinch]], [[Afghanodon]] (or the \"[[Paghman]] mountain salamander\"), ''[[Stigmella kasyi]]'', ''[[Vulcaniella kabulensis]]'', [[Afghan leopard gecko]], ''[[Wheeleria parviflorellus]]'', amongst others. Endemic flora include ''[[Iris afghanica]]''. Afghanistan has a wide variety of birds despite its relatively arid climate – an estimated 460 species of which 235 breed within. The forest region of Afghanistan has vegetation such as [[pine tree]], [[spruce tree]], [[fir tree]] and [[larch]], whereas the steppe grassland regions consist of [[broadleaf tree]], short grass, [[perennial plant]] and [[shrubland]]. The colder high elevation regions are composed of hardy grasses and small flowering plants. Several regions are designated [[List of protected areas of Afghanistan|protected areas]]; there are three National Parks: [[Band-e Amir]], [[Wakhan National Park|Wakhan]] and [[Nuristan National Park|Nuristan]]. Afghanistan had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 8.85/10, ranking it 15th globally out of 172 countries.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "The population of Afghanistan was estimated at 32.9 million as of 2019 by the Afghanistan Statistics and Information Authority, whereas the UN estimates over 38.0 million. About 23.9% of them are [[urban area|urbanite]], 71.4% live in rural areas, and the remaining 4.7% are nomadic.<ref name= \"https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/afghanistan-population/\"></ref> An additional 3 million or so Afghans are temporarily housed in neighboring [[Afghans in Pakistan|Pakistan]] and [[Afghans in Iran|Iran]], most of whom were born and raised in those two countries. As of 2013, Afghanistan was the largest refugee-producing country in the world, a title held for 32 years. The current population growth rate is 2.37%, one of the highest in the world outside of Africa. This population is expected to reach 82 million by 2050 if current population trends continue. The population of Afghanistan increased steadily until the 1980s, when civil war caused millions to flee to other countries such as Pakistan. Millions have since returned and the war conditions has meant a high fertility rate compared to global and regional trends. Afghanistan's healthcare has recovered since the turn of the century, causing falls in infant mortality and increases in life expectancy. This (along with other factors such as returning refugees) caused rapid population growth in the 2000s that has only recently started to slow down.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Ethnic groups"], "text": "Afghanistan's population is divided into several [[ethnolinguistic]] groups. The ethnicities are represented on the table on the right. The percentages given are estimates only, as accurate and current statistical data on ethnicity are not available. Generally the four major ethnic groups are the [[Pashtuns]], [[Tajiks]], [[Hazaras]] and [[Uzbeks]]. A further 10 other ethnic groups are recognized and each are represented in the [[Afghan National Anthem]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Languages"], "text": "[[Dari]] and [[Pashto]] are the [[official language]] of Afghanistan; [[bilingualism]] is very common. Dari, which is a variety of and mutually intelligible with [[Persian language|Persian]] (and very often called 'Farsi' by some Afghans like in [[Iran]]) functions as the [[lingua franca]] in Kabul as well as in much of the northern and northwestern parts of the country. Pashto is the native tongue of the Pashtuns, although many of them are also fluent in Dari while some non-Pashtuns are fluent in Pashto. Despite the Pashtuns having been dominant in Afghan politics for centuries, Dari remained the preferred language for government and bureaucracy. There are a number of smaller regional languages, including [[Uzbek language|Uzbek]], [[Turkmen language|Turkmen]], [[Balochi language|Balochi]], [[Pashayi language|Pashayi]], and [[Nuristani languages|Nuristani]]. When it comes to foreign languages among the populace, many are able to speak or understand [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] ([[Urdu]]-[[Hindi]]), partly due to returning Afghan refugees from Pakistan and the popularity of [[Bollywood]] films respectively. English is also understood by some of the population, and has been gaining popularity as of the 2000s. Some Afghans retain some ability of Russian, which was taught to public schools during the 1980s.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religion"], "text": "An estimated 99.7% of the Afghan population is Muslim and most are thought to adhere to the [[Sunni]] [[Hanafi]] school. According to [[Pew Research Center]], as much as 90% are of the Sunni denomination, 7% [[Shia]] and 3% [[non-denominational Muslim|non-denominational]]. The [[CIA]] Factbook variously estimates up to 89.7% Sunni or up to 15% Shia. Dr [[Michael Izady]] estimated 70% of the population to be followers of Sunni Islam, 25% [[Imamiyyah|Imami Shia Islam]], 4.5% [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili Shia Islam]], and 0.5% [[Religion in Afghanistan#Minority religious groups|other religions]]. Thousands of Afghan [[Sikhism in Afghanistan|Sikhs]] and [[Hinduism in Afghanistan|Hindus]] are also found in certain major cities (namely Kabul, Jalalabad, Ghazni, Kandahar) accompanied by gurdwaras and mandirs. There was a small [[History of the Jews in Afghanistan|Jewish community in Afghanistan]] who had emigrated to Israel and the United States by the end of the twentieth century; at least one Jew, [[Zablon Simintov]], remains, who is the caretaker of the only remaining synagogue. [[Afghan Christians]], who number 500–8,000, practice their faith secretly due to intense societal opposition, and there are no public churches.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Urbanisation"], "text": "As estimated by the CIA World Factbook, 26% of the population was urbanized as of 2020. This is one of the lowest figures in the world; in Asia it is only higher than [[Cambodia]], [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]]. Urbanization has increased rapidly, particularly in the capital [[Kabul]], due to returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran after 2001, internally displaced people, and rural migrants. Urbanization in Afghanistan has been noted to be different than traditional urbanization, in that it's centered on a few cities rather than evenly spread out nationwide. The only city with over a million residents is its capital, Kabul, located in the east of the country. The other large cities are located generally in the \"ring\" around the Central Highlands, namely [[Kandahar]] in the south, [[Herat]] in the west, [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] and [[Kunduz]] in the north, and [[Jalalabad]] in the east.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance"], "text": "Afghanistan is an [[Islamic republic]] consisting of three branches, the executive, legislative, and judicial. The nation is led by President [[Ashraf Ghani]] with [[Amrullah Saleh]] and [[Sarwar Danish]] as vice presidents. The [[National Assembly of Afghanistan|National Assembly]] is the legislature, a [[bicameral]] body having two chambers, the [[House of the People (Afghanistan)|House of the People]] and the [[House of Elders]]. The [[Afghan Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] is led by [[Chief Justice of Afghanistan|Chief Justice]] [[Said Yusuf Halem]], the former Deputy Minister of Justice for Legal Affairs. According to [[Transparency International]], Afghanistan remains in the top most corrupt countries list. A January 2010 report published by the [[United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime]] revealed that bribery consumed an amount equal to 23% of the GDP of the nation. On 17 May 2020, President [[Ashraf Ghani]] reached a power-sharing deal with his rival from presidential elections, [[Abdullah Abdullah]], deciding on who would manage the respected key ministries. The agreement ended months-long [[political deadlock]] in the country. It was agreed that while Ghani will lead Afghanistan as the president, Abdullah will oversee the [[Afghan peace process|peace process]] with the [[Taliban]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance", "Elections and parties"], "text": "One instrument of Afghan governance is the ''[[loya jirga]]'' (grand assembly), a [[Pashtun]] consultative meeting that is mainly organized for choosing a new [[head of state]], adopting a new constitution, or to settle national or regional issue such as war. Loya jirgas have been held since at least 1747, with the most recent one occurring in 2013. Under the [[Constitution of Afghanistan|2004 constitution]], both presidential and parliamentary elections are to be held every five years. However, due to the disputed [[2014 Afghan presidential election|2014 presidential election]], the scheduled 2015 parliamentary elections were delayed until [[2018 Afghan parliamentary election|2018]]. Presidential elections use the [[two-round system]]; if no candidate receives a majority of the vote in the first round, a second round will be held featuring the top two candidates. Parliamentary elections have only one round and are based on the [[single non-transferable vote]] system, which allows some candidates to be elected with as little as one percent of the vote. The [[Afghan presidential election, 2004|2004 Afghan presidential election]] was relatively peaceful, in which Hamid Karzai won in the first round with 55.4% of the votes. However, the [[Afghan presidential election, 2009|2009 presidential election]] was characterized by lack of security, low voter turnout, and widespread electoral fraud, ending in Karzai's reelection. The [[Afghan presidential election, 2014|2014 presidential election]] ended with Ashraf Ghani winning by 56.44% of the votes. Political parties played a marginal role in post-2001 Afghan politics, in part due to Karzai's opposition to them. In the [[Afghan parliamentary election, 2005|2005 parliamentary election]], the ballots did not show candidates' party affiliation, so the results were dictated by the personal prestige of the candidates. Among the elected officials were a large mix of former mujahideen, [[Islamic fundamentalists]], warlords, tribal nationalists, former communists, [[reformists]], urban professionals, [[royalism|royalists]] and several former Taliban associates. In the same period, Afghanistan became the 30th highest nation in terms of female representation in the National Assembly. Parties became more influential after 2009, when a new law established more stringent requirements for party registration. Nearly a hundred new parties were registered after the law came into effect, and party activity increased in the 2014 elections, but party influence remained limited.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance", "Administrative divisions"], "text": "Afghanistan is administratively divided into 34 provinces (''[[wilayat]]''). Each province is the size of a [[U.S. county]], having a governor and a capital. The country is further divided into nearly 400 provincial [[Districts of Afghanistan|districts]], each of which normally covers a city or several villages. Each district is represented by a district governor. The [[list of current governors of Afghanistan|provincial governors]] are appointed by the [[President of Afghanistan]], and the district governors are selected by the provincial governors. The provincial governors are representatives of the central government in Kabul and are responsible for all administrative and formal issues within their provinces. There are also provincial councils that are elected through direct and general elections for four years. The functions of provincial councils are to take part in provincial development planning and to participate in the monitoring and appraisal of other provincial governance institutions. According to article 140 of the constitution and the presidential decree on electoral law, mayors of cities should be elected through free and direct elections for a four-year term. In practice however, mayors are appointed by the government. The following is a list of all the 34 provinces in alphabetical order: (1) [[Badakhshan Province|Badakhshan]] (2) [[Badghis Province|Badghis]] (3) [[Baghlan Province|Baghlan]] (4) [[Balkh Province|Balkh]] (5) [[Bamyan Province|Bamyan]] (6) [[Daykundi Province|Daykundi]] (7) [[Farah Province|Farah]] (8) [[Faryab Province|Faryab]] (9) [[Ghazni Province|Ghazni]] (10) [[Ghor Province|Ghor]] (11) [[Helmand Province|Helmand]] (12) [[Herat Province|Herat]] (13) [[Jowzjan Province|Jowzjan]] (14) [[Kabul Province|Kabul]] (15) [[Kandahar Province|Kandahar]] (16) [[Kapisa Province|Kapisa]] (17) [[Khost Province|Khost]] (18) [[Kunar Province|Kunar]] (19) [[Kunduz Province|Kunduz]] (20) [[Laghman Province|Laghman]] (21) [[Logar Province|Logar]] (22) [[Nangarhar Province|Nangarhar]] (23) [[Nimruz Province|Nimruz]] (24) [[Nuristan Province|Nuristan]] (25) [[Oruzgan Province|Oruzgan]] (26) [[Paktia Province|Paktia]] (27) [[Paktika Province|Paktika]] (28) [[Panjshir Province|Panjshir]] (29) [[Parwan Province|Parwan]] (30) [[Samangan Province|Samangan]] (31) [[Sar-e Pol Province|Sar-e Pol]] (32) [[Takhar Province|Takhar]] (33) [[Wardak Province|Wardak]] (34) [[Zabul Province|Zabul]]", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance", "Foreign relations"], "text": "Afghanistan became a member of the United Nations in 1946. It enjoys cordial relations with a number of [[NATO]] and allied nations, particularly the [[Afghanistan–United States relations|United States]], [[Afghanistan–Canada relations|Canada]], [[Afghanistan–United Kingdom relations|United Kingdom]], [[Afghanistan–Germany relations|Germany]], Australia, and [[Afghanistan–Turkey relations|Turkey]]. In 2012, the United States and Afghanistan signed their [[U.S.–Afghanistan Strategic Partnership Agreement|Strategic Partnership Agreement]] in which Afghanistan became a [[major non-NATO ally]]. Afghanistan has historically had strong relations with Germany, one of the first countries to recognize Afghanistan's independence in 1919; the [[Soviet Union]], which provided much aid and military training for Afghanistan's forces and includes the signing of a Treaty of Friendship in 1921 and 1978; and [[Afghanistan–India relations|India]], with which a friendship treaty was signed in 1950. Relations with [[Afghanistan–Pakistan relations|Pakistan]] have often been tense for various reasons such as the [[Durand Line]] border issue and alleged Pakistani involvement in Afghan insurgent groups. Afghanistan also has diplomatic relations with neighboring [[Afghanistan–China relations|China]], [[Afghanistan–Iran relations|Iran]], [[Afghanistan–Tajikistan relations|Tajikistan]], [[Foreign relations of Turkmenistan#Afghanistan|Turkmenistan]], and [[Foreign relations of Uzbekistan|Uzbekistan]], including with regional states such as [[Afghanistan–Bangladesh relations|Bangladesh]], [[Afghanistan–Japan relations|Japan]], [[Foreign relations of Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]], [[Foreign relations of Nepal|Nepal]], [[Afghanistan–Russia relations|Russia]], [[Afghanistan–South Korea relations|South Korea]], and the [[Afghanistan–United Arab Emirates relations|UAE]]. The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Afghanistan)|Afghan Ministry of Foreign Affairs]] continues to develop [[Foreign relations of Afghanistan|diplomatic relations]] with other countries around the world. The [[United Nations Assistance Mission in Afghanistan]] (UNAMA) was established in 2002 to help the country recover from decades of war. Today, several NATO member states deploy about 17,000 troops in Afghanistan as part of the [[Resolute Support Mission]]. Its main purpose is to [[NATO Training Mission-Afghanistan|train the Afghan National Security Forces]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance", "Military"], "text": "The [[Afghan Armed Forces]] are under the [[Ministry of Defense (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Defense]], which includes the [[Afghan Air Force]] (AAF) and the [[Afghan National Army]] (ANA). The [[Afghan Defense University]] houses various educational establishments for the Afghan Armed Forces, including the [[National Military Academy of Afghanistan]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance", "Law enforcement"], "text": "Law enforcement in Afghanistan is the responsibility of the [[Afghan National Police]] (ANP), which is part of the [[Ministry of Interior Affairs (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Interior Affairs]]. The ANP consists of two primary branches, the Afghan Uniformed Police and the [[Afghan Border Police]]. The mission of the Uniformed Police is to ensure security within Afghanistan, prevent crime, and protect property. The Border Police is responsible for securing and maintaining the nation's borders with neighboring states as well as all international airports within the country. Afghanistan's [[intelligence agency]], the [[National Directorate of Security]] (NDS), assists the ANP with security matters. All parts of Afghanistan are considered dangerous due to militant activities and terrorism-related incidents. Kidnapping for ransom and robberies are common in major cities. Every year hundreds of [[list of Afghan security forces fatality reports in Afghanistan|Afghan police are killed]] in the line of duty. Afghanistan is also the world's leading [[opium production in Afghanistan|producer of opium]]. Afghanistan's [[opium poppy]] harvest produces more than 90% of illicit heroin globally, and more than 95% of the European supply. The [[Afghan Ministry of Counter Narcotics]] is responsible for the monitoring and eradication of the illegal drug business.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance", "Human rights"], "text": "[[Freedom of expression]] and the press is permitted and promoted in the current 2004 constitution, so long as it does not threaten national or religious integrity or does not [[defame]] individuals. In 2019, [[Reporters Without Borders]] listed the media environment of Afghanistan as 121st out of 179 on its [[Press Freedom Index]], with 1st being most free. However many issues regarding human rights exist contrary to the law, often committed by local tribes, lawmakers and hardline clerics. Journalists in Afghanistan face threat from both the security forces and insurgents. The Afghan Journalists Safety Committee (AJSC) claimed in 2017 that the Afghan government accounted for 46% of the attacks on Afghans journalists, while insurgents were responsible for rest of the attacks. According to [[Global Rights]], almost 90% of women in Afghanistan have experienced physical abuse, sexual abuse, psychological abuse or forced marriage. The perpetrators of these crimes are the families of the victim. A 2009 proposal for a law against the violence of women could only be passed through a presidential decree. In 2012, Afghanistan recorded 240 cases of [[honor killing]], but the total number is believed to be much higher. Of the reported honor killings, 21% were committed by the victims' husbands, 7% by their brothers, 4% by their fathers, and the rest by other relatives. Homosexuality is [[taboo]] in Afghan society; according to the Penal Code, homosexual intimacy is punished by up to a year in prison. With implementing [[Sharia law]] offenders can be [[Death penalty for homosexuality|punished by death]]. However an ancient tradition involving male homosexual acts between youngsters and older men (typically wealthy or elite people) called ''[[bacha bazi]]'' persists. This act is also illegal under the Penal Code and offenders can be imprisoned. On August 14, 2020, [[UN Human Rights Council]] experts issued a joint statement urging Afghanistan officials to prevent the killings of [[human rights defenders]] as there have been nine deaths of human rights defenders since January 2020.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "Afghanistan's nominal GDP was $21.7 billion in 2018, or $72.9 billion by [[purchasing power parity]] (PPP). Its [[List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita|GDP per capita]] is $2,024 (PPP). Despite having $1 trillion or more in mineral deposits, it remains one of the world's [[least developed countries]]. Afghanistan's rough physical geography and its landlocked status has been cited as reasons why the country has always been among the least developed in the modern era – a factor where progress is also slowed by contemporary conflict and political instability. The country imports over $7 billion worth of goods but exports only $784 million, mainly fruits and [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]]. It has $2.8 billion in [[external debt]]. The service sector contributed the most to the GDP (55.9%) followed by agriculture (23%) and industry (21.1%). While the nation's current account deficit is largely financed with donor money, only a small portion is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. [[Da Afghanistan Bank]] serves as the central bank of the nation and the [[Afghan afghani|Afghani]] (AFN) is the national currency, with an exchange rate of about 75 Afghanis to 1 US dollar. A number of local and foreign banks operate in the country, including the [[Afghanistan International Bank]], [[New Kabul Bank]], [[Azizi Bank]], [[Pashtany Bank]], [[Standard Chartered Bank]], and the [[First MicroFinance Bank-Afghanistan|First Micro Finance Bank]]. One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 5 million [[Afghan diaspora|expatriates]], who brought with them entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. Many Afghans are now involved in construction, which is one of the largest industries in the country. Some of the major national construction projects include the New Kabul City next to the capital, the Aino Mena project in Kandahar, and the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan Town]] near Jalalabad. Similar development projects have also begun in [[Herat]], [[Mazar-e-Sharif]], and other cities. An estimated 400,000 people enter the labor market each year. Several small companies and factories began operating in different parts of the country, which not only provide revenues to the government but also create new jobs. Improvements to the business environment have resulted in more than $1.5 billion in [[Telecommunication|telecom]] investment and created more than 100,000 jobs since 2003. [[Afghan rug]] are becoming popular again, allowing many carpet dealers around the country to hire more workers; in 2016–17 it was the fourth most exported group of items. Afghanistan is a member of [[WTO]], [[SAARC]], [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]], and [[OIC]]. It holds an observer status in [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]]. In 2018, a majority of imports come from either Iran, China, Pakistan and Kazakhstan, while 84% of exports are to Pakistan and India.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Agriculture"], "text": "Agricultural production is the backbone of Afghanistan's economy and has traditionally dominated the economy, employing about 40% of the workforce as of 2018. The country is known for producing [[pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]], grapes, apricots, melons, and several other fresh and dry fruits. It is also known as the world's largest producer of [[Opium production in Afghanistan|opium]] – as much as 16% or more of the nation's economy is derived from the cultivation and sale of opium. It is also one of the world's top producers of [[cannabis]]. [[Saffron]], the most expensive spice, grows in Afghanistan, particularly [[Herat Province]]. In recent years, there has been an uptick in saffron production, which authorities and farmers are trying to replace poppy cultivation. Between 2012 and 2019, the saffron cultivated and produced in Afghanistan was consecutively ranked the world's best by the International Taste and Quality Institute. Production hit record high in 2019 (19,469 kg of saffron), and one kilogram is sold domestically between $634 and $1147.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Mining"], "text": "The country's natural resources include: coal, copper, iron ore, [[lithium]], [[uranium]], [[rare earth element]], [[chromite]], gold, [[zinc]], [[talc]], [[barite]], [[sulfur]], lead, [[marble]], precious and [[semi-precious stones]], natural gas, and petroleum, among other things. In 2010, US and Afghan government officials estimated that untapped mineral deposits located in 2007 by the [[US Geological Survey]] are worth at least . [[Michael E. O'Hanlon]] of the [[Brookings Institution]] estimated that if Afghanistan generates about $10 billion per year from its [[mining in Afghanistan|mineral deposits]], its [[gross national product]] would double and provide long-term funding for Afghan security forces and other critical needs. The [[United States Geological Survey]] (USGS) estimated in 2006 that northern Afghanistan has an average of [[crude oil]], of natural gas, and of [[natural gas liquids]]. In 2011, Afghanistan signed an oil exploration contract with [[China National Petroleum Corporation]] (CNPC) for the development of three oil fields along the Amu Darya river in the north. The country has significant amounts of [[lithium]], copper, gold, coal, iron ore, and other [[minerals]]. The [[Khanashin]] [[carbonatite]] in Helmand Province contains of [[rare earth element]]. In 2007, a 30-year lease was granted for the [[Mes Aynak#Copper Mine|Aynak]] copper mine to the [[China Metallurgical Group]] for $3 billion, making it the biggest foreign investment and private business venture in Afghanistan's history. The state-run [[Steel Authority of India]] won the mining rights to develop the huge [[Hajigak Pass|Hajigak]] iron ore deposit in central Afghanistan. Government officials estimate that 30% of the country's untapped mineral deposits are worth at least . One official asserted that \"this will become the backbone of the Afghan economy\" and a Pentagon memo stated that Afghanistan could become the \"Saudi Arabia of lithium\". In a 2011 news story, the ''[[The Christian Science Monitor|CSM]]'' reported, \"The United States and other Western nations that have borne the brunt of the cost of the Afghan war have been conspicuously absent from the bidding process on Afghanistan's mineral deposits, leaving it mostly to regional powers.\" Access to [[biocapacity]] in Afghanistan is lower than world average. In 2016, Afghanistan had 0.43 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Afghanistan used 0.73 global hectares of biocapacity per person - their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use just under double as much biocapacity as Afghanistan contains. As a result, Afghanistan is running a biocapacity deficit.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Energy"], "text": "According to the [[World Bank]], 98% of the rural population have access to electricity in 2018, up from 28% in 2008. Overall the figure stands at 98.7%. As of 2016, Afghanistan produces 1,400 [[megawatt]] of power, but still imports the majority of electricity via transmission lines from Iran and the Central Asian states. The majority of electricity production is via [[hydropower]], helped by the amount of rivers and streams that flow from the mountains. However electricity is not always reliable and blackouts happen, including in Kabul. In recent years an increasing number of [[Solar power|solar]], [[biomass]] and wind power plants have been constructed. Currently under development are the [[CASA-1000]] project which will transmit electricity from Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan, and the [[Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India pipeline|Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India]] (TAPI) gas pipeline. Power is managed by the [[Da Afghanistan Breshna Sherkat]] (DABS, Afghanistan Electricity Company). Important dams include the [[Kajaki Dam]], [[Dahla Dam]], and the [[Sardeh Band Dam]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Tourism"], "text": "Tourism is a small industry in Afghanistan due to security issues. Nevertheless, some 20,000 foreign tourists visit the country annually as of 2016. In particular an important region for domestic and international tourism is the picturesque [[Bamyan]] Valley, which includes lakes, canyons and historical sites, helped by the fact it is in a safe area away from insurgent activity. Smaller numbers visit and trek in regions such as the [[Wakhan]] Valley, which is also one of the world's most remote communities. From the late 1960s onwards, Afghanistan was a popular stop on the famous [[hippie trail]], attracting many Europeans and Americans. Coming from Iran, the trail traveled through various Afghan provinces and cities including [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]] and [[Kabul]] before crossing to northern Pakistan, northern India, and [[Nepal]]. Tourism peaked in 1977, the year before the start of political instability and armed conflict. The city of [[Ghazni]] has significant history and historical sites, and together with [[Bamyan]] city have in recent years been voted Islamic Cultural Capital and South Asia Cultural Capital respectively. The cities of [[Herat]], [[Kandahar]], [[Balkh]], and [[Zaranj]] are also very historic. The [[Minaret of Jam]] in the [[Hari River, Afghanistan|Hari River]] valley is a [[UNESCO World Heritage site]]. A cloak reputedly worn by Islam's prophet [[Muhammad]] is kept inside the [[Shrine of the Cloak]] in Kandahar, a city founded by [[Alexander the Great]] and the first capital of Afghanistan. The [[citadel of Alexander]] in the western city of Herat has been renovated in recent years and is a popular attraction. In the north of the country is the [[Shrine of Ali]], believed by many to be the location where [[Ali]] was buried. The [[National Museum of Afghanistan]] is located in Kabul and hosts a large number of Buddhist, [[Bactria]] Greek and early Islamic antiquities; the museum suffered greatly by civil war but has been slowly restoring since the early 2000s.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Communication"], "text": "Telecommunication services in Afghanistan are provided by [[Afghan Telecom]], [[Afghan Wireless]], [[Etisalat]], [[MTN Group]], and [[Roshan (telco)|Roshan]]. The country uses its own space [[satellite]] called [[Afghansat 1]], which provides services to millions of phone, internet, and television subscribers. By 2001 following years of civil war, telecommunications was virtually a non-existent sector, but by 2016 it had grown to a $2 billion industry, with 22 million mobile phone subscribers and 5 million internet users. The sector employs at least 120,000 people nationwide.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Transportation"], "text": "Due to Afghanistan's geography, transport between various parts of the country have historically been difficult. The backbone of Afghanistan's road network is [[Highway 1 (Afghanistan)|Highway 1]], often called the \"Ring Road\", which extends for and connects five major cities: Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif, with spurs to Kunduz and Jalalabad and various border crossings, while skirting around the mountains of the Hindu Kush. The Ring Road is crucially important for domestic and international trade and the economy. A key portion of the Ring Road is the [[Salang Tunnel]], completed in 1964, which facilitates travel through the Hindu Kush mountain range and connects northern and southern Afghanistan. It is the only land route that connects Central Asia to the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Several mountain passes allow travel between the Hindu Kush in other areas. Serious traffic accidents are common on Afghan roads and highways, particularly on the [[Kabul–Kandahar Highway|Kabul–Kandahar]] and the [[Kabul–Jalalabad Road]]. Traveling by bus in Afghanistan remains dangerous due to militant activities. Air transport in Afghanistan is provided by the national carrier, [[Ariana Afghan Airlines]], and by the private company [[Kam Air]]. Airlines from a number of countries also provide flights in and out of the country. These include [[Air India]], [[Emirates (airline)|Emirates]], [[Gulf Air]], [[Iran Aseman Airlines]], [[Pakistan International Airlines]], and [[Turkish Airlines]]. The country has four international airports: [[Hamid Karzai International Airport]] (formerly Kabul International Airport), [[Kandahar International Airport]], [[Herat International Airport]], and [[Mazar-e Sharif International Airport]]. Including domestic airports, there are 43. [[Bagram Air Base]] is a major military airfield. The country has three rail links: one, a line from [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] to the [[Afghanistan–Uzbekistan Friendship Bridge|Uzbekistan border]]; a long line from [[Toraghundi]] to the [[Turkmenistan]] border (where it continues as part of [[Turkmen Railways]]); and a short link from [[Aqina]] across the Turkmen border to [[Kerki]], which is planned to be extended further across Afghanistan. These lines are used for freight only and there is no passenger service. A rail line between [[Khaf, Iran|Khaf]], Iran and [[Herat]], western Afghanistan, intended for both freight and passengers, is under construction as of 2019. About of the line will lie on the Afghan side. There are various proposals for the construction of additional rail lines in the country. Private vehicle ownership has increased substantially since the early 2000s. Taxis are yellow in color and consist of both cars and [[auto rickshaw]]. In rural Afghanistan, villagers often use [[donkey]], [[mule]] or [[horse]] to transport or carry goods. [[Camel]] are primarily used by the [[Kochi]] nomads. Bicycles are popular throughout Afghanistan.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Education"], "text": "[[Education in Afghanistan]] includes [[K–12]] and higher education, which is overseen by the [[Ministry of Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Education]] and the [[Ministry of Higher Education (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Higher Education]]. There are over 16,000 schools in the country and roughly 9 million students. Of this, about 60% are males and 40% females. Over 174,000 students are enrolled in different [[List of universities in Afghanistan|universities around the country]]. About 21% of these are females. Former Education Minister [[Ghulam Farooq Wardak]] had stated that construction of 8,000 schools is required for the remaining children who are deprived of [[formal learning]]. The top universities in Afghanistan are the [[American University of Afghanistan]] (AUAF) followed by [[Kabul University]] (KU), both of which are located in Kabul. The [[National Military Academy of Afghanistan]], modeled after the [[United States Military Academy]] at West Point, is a four-year military development institution dedicated to graduating officers for the [[Afghan Armed Forces]]. The [[Afghan Defense University]] was constructed near [[Qargha]] in Kabul. Major universities outside of Kabul include [[Kandahar University]] in the south, [[Herat University]] in the northwest, [[Balkh University]] and [[Kunduz University]] in the north, [[Nangarhar University]] and [[Khost University]] in the east. The United States is building six faculties of education and five provincial teacher training colleges around the country, two large secondary schools in Kabul, and one school in Jalalabad. Kabul University was founded in 1932 and is a respected institute that played a significant part in the country's education; from the 1960s the Kabul University was also a hotbed of radical political ideologies such as Marxism and Islamism, which played major parts in society, politics and the war that began in 1978. As of 2018 the literacy rate of the population age 15 and older is 43.02% (males 55.48% and females 29.81%). The Afghan National Security Forces are provided with mandatory literacy courses.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Health"], "text": "According to the [[Human Development Index]], Afghanistan is the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|15th least developed country in the world]]. The average [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] is estimated to be around 60 years. The country's [[maternal mortality]] rate is 396 deaths/100,000 live births and its [[infant mortality]] rate is 66 to 112.8 deaths in every 1,000 live births. The [[Ministry of Public Health (Afghanistan)|Ministry of Public Health]] plans to cut the infant mortality rate to 400 for every 100,000 live births before 2020. The country has more than 3,000 [[midwifery|midwives]], with an additional 300 to 400 being trained each year. There are over 100 [[hospitals in Afghanistan]], with the most advanced treatments being available in Kabul. The [[French Medical Institute for Children]] and [[Indira Gandhi Children's Hospital]] in Kabul are the leading [[children's hospital]] in the country. Some of the other leading hospitals in Kabul include the [[Jamhuriat Hospital]] and [[Jinnah Hospital (Kabul)|Jinnah Hospital]]. In spite of all this, many Afghans travel to Pakistan and India for advanced treatment. It was reported in 2006 that nearly 60% of the Afghan population lives within a two-hour walk of the nearest health facility. [[Disability]] rate is also high in Afghanistan due to the decades of war. It was reported recently that about 80,000 people are missing limbs. Non-governmental charities such as [[Save the Children]] and [[Mahboba's Promise]] assist orphans in association with governmental structures. [[Demographic and Health Surveys]] is working with the [[Indian Institute of Health Management Research]] and others to conduct a survey in Afghanistan focusing on [[maternal death]], among other things.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture"], "text": "Since antiquity, Afghanistan has been part of what is now referred to as Central Asia – politically, economically, and culturally. Afghanistan is a predominantly tribal society, with different regions of the country having their own cultures as a result of differing ethnicities and geographic obstacles that makes much of the country remote. Family is the mainstay of Afghan society and families are often headed by a [[patriarch]]. In the southern and eastern region, the people live according to the [[Pashtun culture]] by following [[Pashtunwali]] (the Pashtun way). Key tenets of Pashtunwali include [[melmastia|hospitality]], the provision of [[nanawatai|sanctuary]] to those seeking refuge, and revenge for the shedding of blood. The Pashtuns (and [[Baloch people|Baloch]]) are largely connected to the culture of South Asia. The remaining Afghans are culturally [[Persianization|Persian]] and [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]]. Some non-Pashtuns who live in proximity with Pashtuns have adopted Pashtunwali in a process called [[Pashtunization]], while some Pashtuns have been [[Persianization|Persianized]]. Those who have lived in Pakistan and Iran over the last 30 years have been further influenced by the cultures of those neighboring nations. The Afghan people are known to be strongly religious. Afghans, particularly Pashtuns, are noted for their tribal solidarity and high regard for personal honor. One writer considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle. There are various [[ethnic groups in Afghanistan|Afghan tribes]], and an estimated 2–3 million [[Kochi people|nomads]]. Afghan culture is deeply [[Islamic culture|Islamic]], but pre-Islamic practices persist. One example is ''[[bacha bazi]]'', a term for activities involving sexual relations between older men and younger adolescent men, or boys. [[Child marriage in Afghanistan|Child marriage]] is prevalent in Afghanistan; the legal age for marriage is 16. The most preferred marriage in Afghan society is to one's [[parallel cousin]], and the groom is often expected to pay a [[bride price]]. In the villages, families typically occupy [[mudbrick]] houses, or compounds with mudbrick or [[stone wall]] houses. Villages typically have a headman (''malik''), a master for water disribution (''mirab'') and a religious teacher (''mullah''). Men would typically work on the fields, joined by women during harvest. About 15% of the population are [[nomadic]], locally called ''[[kochi]]''. When nomads pass villages they often buy supplies such as tea, wheat and [[kerosene]] from the villagers; villagers buy [[wool]] and milk from the nomads.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture"], "text": "[[Afghan clothing]] for both men and women typically consists of various forms of [[shalwar kameez]], especially ''[[perahan tunban]]'' and ''[[khet partug]]''. Women would normally wear a ''[[chador]]'' for head covering; some women, typically from highly conservative communities, wear the ''[[burqa]]'', a full body covering. These were worn by some women of the Pashtun community well before Islam came to the region, but the [[Taliban]] enforced this dress on women when they were in power. Another popular dress is the ''[[chapan]]'' which acts as a coat. The ''[[Karakul (hat)|karakul]]'' is a hat made from the fur of a specific regional breed of sheep. It was favored by former kings of Afghanistan and became known to much of the world in the 21st century when it was constantly worn by President [[Hamid Karzai]]. The ''[[pakol]]'' is another traditional hat originating from the far east of the country; it was popularly worn by the guerilla leader [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]]. The ''Mazari hat'' originates from northern Afghanistan.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Architecture"], "text": "The nation has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. Afghanistan contains many remnants from all ages, including [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Buddhist]] stupas, monasteries, monuments, temples and Islamic minarets. Among the most well known are the [[Great Mosque of Herat]], the [[Blue Mosque (Mazar-i-Sharif)|Blue Mosque]], the [[Minaret of Jam]], the [[Chil Zena]], the Qala-i Bost in [[Lashkargah]], the ancient Greek city of [[Ai-Khanoum]]. However, many of its historic monuments have been damaged in modern times due to the civil wars. The two famous [[Buddhas of Bamiyan]] were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as [[idolatrous]]. Despite that, archaeologists are still finding Buddhist relics in different parts of the country, some of them dating back to the 2nd century. As there was no colonialism in the modern era in Afghanistan, European-style architecture is rare; most notably the Victory Arch at [[Paghman]], and the [[Darul Aman Palace]] in Kabul, were built in this style in the 1920s by the Afghans themselves.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Art and ceramics"], "text": "Carpet [[weaving]] is an ancient practice in Afghanistan, and many of these are still [[Handicraft|handmade]] by tribal and nomadic people today. Carpets have been produced in the region for thousands of years and traditionally done by women. Some crafters express their feelings through the designs of rugs; for example after the outbreak of the [[Soviet-Afghan War]], \"[[war rugs]]\" were created with designs representing pain and misery caused by the conflict. Every province has its own specific characteristics in making rugs. In some of the Turkic-populated areas in the north-west, bride and wedding ceremony prices are driven by the bride's weaving skills. [[Pottery]] has been crafted in Afghanistan for millennia. The village of [[Istalif]], north of Kabul, is in particular a major center, known for its unique turquoise and green pottery, and their methods of crafting have remained the same for centuries. Much of ''[[lapis lazuli]]'' stones were earthed in modern-day Afghanistan which were used in [[Chinese porcelain]] as [[cobalt blue]], later used in ancient [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Turkey]]. The lands of Afghanistan have a long history of art, with the world's earliest known usage of [[oil painting]] found in cave murals in the country. A notable art style that developed in Afghanistan and eastern Pakistan is [[Gandhara Art]], produced by a fusion of [[Greco-Roman]] art and [[Buddhist art]] between the 1st and 7th centuries CE. Later eras saw increased use of the [[Persian miniature]] style, with [[Kamaleddin Behzad]] of [[Herat]] being one of the most notable miniature artists of the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurid]] and early [[Safavid]] periods. Since the 1900s, the nation began to use Western techniques in art. [[Abdul Ghafoor Breshna]] was a prominent Afghan painter and sketch artist from Kabul during the 20th century.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Media and entertainment"], "text": "Afghanistan has around 350 [[List of radio stations in Afghanistan|radio stations]] and over 200 television stations. [[Radio Television Afghanistan]], originating from 1925, is the state public broadcaster. Television programs began airing in the 1970s and today there are many private television channels such as [[TOLO (TV channel)|TOLO]] and [[Shamshad TV]]. The first Afghan newspaper was published in 1873, and there are hundreds of print outlets today. By the 1920s, [[Radio Kabul]] was broadcasting local radio services. [[Voice of America]], [[BBC World Service|BBC]], and [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] (RFE/RL) broadcast in both of Afghanistan's official languages on radio. Press restrictions have been gradually relaxed and private media diversified since 2002, after more than two decades of tight controls. Afghans have long been accustomed to watching Indian [[Bollywood]] films and listening to its [[filmi]] songs. It has been claimed that Afghanistan is among the biggest markets for the Hindi film industry. The stereotypes of [[Afghans in India]] (''Kabuliwala'' or ''Pathani'') has also been represented in some Bollywood films by actors. Many Bollywood film stars have roots in Afghanistan, including [[Salman Khan]], [[Saif Ali Khan]], [[Shah Rukh Khan]], [[Aamir Khan]], [[Feroz Khan (Indian actor)|Feroz Khan]], [[Kader Khan]], [[Naseeruddin Shah]], [[Zarine Khan]], [[Celina Jaitly]], and a number of others. Several Bollywood films have been shot inside Afghanistan, including ''[[Dharmatma]]'', ''[[Khuda Gawah]]'', ''[[Escape from Taliban]]'', and ''[[Kabul Express]]''.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Music"], "text": "Afghan classical music has close historical links with [[Indian classical music]] and use the same Hindustani terminology and theories like [[raga]]. Genres of this style of music include [[ghazal]] (poetic music) and instruments such as the Indian [[tabla]], [[sitar]] and [[harmonium]], and local instruments like [[zerbaghali]], as well as [[dayereh]] and [[tanbur]] which are also known in Central Asia, the Caucusus and the Middle East. The [[Rubab (instrument)|rubab]] is the country's national instrument and precurses the Indian [[sarod]] instrument. Some of the famous artists of classical music include [[Ustad Sarahang]] and [[Abdul Rahim Sarban|Sarban]]. Pop music developed in the 1950s through [[Radio Kabul]] and was influential in social change. During this time female artists also started appearing, at first [[Mermon Parwin]]. Perhaps the most famous artist of this genre was [[Ahmad Zahir]], who synthesized many genres and continues to be renowned for his voice and rich lyrics long after his death in 1979. Other notable masters of traditional or popular Afghan music include [[Nashenas]], [[Ubaidullah Jan]], [[Mahwash]], [[Ahmad Wali]], [[Farhad Darya]], and [[Naghma]]. [[Attan]] is the national dance of Afghanistan, a group dance popularly performed by Afghans of all backgrounds. The dance is considered part of Afghan identity.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Cuisine"], "text": "Afghan cuisine is largely based upon the nation's chief crops, such as wheat, maize, [[barley]] and rice. Accompanying these staples are native fruits and vegetables as well as dairy products such as milk, [[yogurt]] and [[whey]]. [[Kabuli palaw]] is the [[national dish]] of Afghanistan. The nation's culinary specialties reflect its ethnic and geographic diversity. Afghanistan is known for its high quality [[Pomegranate production in Afghanistan|pomegranates]], grapes, and sweet melons. Tea is a favorite drink among Afghans, and they typically eat [[naan]] breads, yoghurts, rice and meat in a typical diet.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Literature"], "text": "Classic [[Persian literature|Persian]] and [[Pashto poetry]] are a cherished part of Afghan culture. Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in the region, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. One of the poetic styles is called [[Landay (poetry)|landay]]. A popular theme in Afghan folklore and mythology are [[Dev (mythology)|devs]], monstrous creatures. Thursdays are traditionally \"poetry night\" in the city of [[Herat]] when men, women and children gather and recite both ancient and modern poems. The Afghan region has produced countless Persian-speaking poets and writers from the Middle Ages to the present day, among which three mystical authors are considered true national glories (although claimed with equal ardor by Iran), namely: [[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari]] of Herat, a great mystic and [[Sufi]] saint in the 11th century, [[Sanai]] of Ghazni, author of mystical poems in the 12th century, and, finally, [[Rumi]] of Balkh, in the 13th century, considered the persophonist throughout the world as the greatest mystical poet of the entire Muslim world. The Afghan Pashto literature, although quantitatively remarkable and in great growth in the last century, has always had an essentially local meaning and importance, feeling the influence of both Persian literature and the contiguous literatures of India. Both main literatures, from the second half of the nineteenth century, have shown themselves to be sensitive to genres (novel, theater), movements and stylistic features imported from Europe. [[Khushal Khan Khattak]] of the 17th century is considered the national poet. Other notable poets include [[Rabi'a Balkhi]], [[Jami]], [[Rahman Baba]], [[Khalilullah Khalili]], and [[Parween Pazhwak]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Holidays and festivals"], "text": "Afghanistan's official New Year starts with [[Nowruz]], an ancient tradition that started as a [[Zoroastrian]] celebration in present-day Iran, and with which it shares the annual celebration along with several other countries. It occurs every year at the [[March equinox|vernal equinox]]. [[Nauruz in Afghanistan|In Afghanistan]], Nowruz is typically celebrated with music and dance, as well as holding [[buzkashi]] tournaments. [[Yaldā]], another nationally celebrated ancient tradition, commemorates the ancient goddess [[Mithra]] and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the [[winter solstice]] (; usually falling on 20 or 21 December), during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly the red fruits watermelon and [[pomegranate]], as well as [[mixed nuts]]. Religious festivals are also celebrated; as a predominantly Muslim country, Islamic events and festivals such as [[Ramadan]], [[Eid al-Fitr]] and [[Ashura]] are widely celebrated annually in Afghanistan. The Sikh festival of [[Vaisakhi]] is celebrated by the Sikh community and the Hindu festival [[Diwali]] by the Hindu community. [[Afghan Independence Day|National Independence Day]] is celebrated on 19 August to mark the [[Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919]] under King [[Amanullah Khan]] and the country's full independence. Several international celebrations are also officially held in Afghanistan, such as [[International Workers' Day]] and [[International Women's Day]]. Some regional festivals include the Pamir Festival, which celebrates the culture of the [[Wakhi people|Wakhi]] and [[Kyrgyz people|Kyrgyz]] peoples, the Red Flower Festival (during Nowruz) in [[Mazar-i-Sharif]] and the Damboora Festival in [[Bamyan Province]].", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Sports"], "text": "Sport in Afghanistan is managed by the [[Afghan Sports Federation]]. [[Cricket]] and association football are the two most popular sports in the country. The Afghan Sports Federation promotes cricket, association football, [[basketball]], [[volleyball]], [[golf]], [[team handball|handball]], [[boxing]], [[taekwondo]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]], [[bodybuilding]], [[track and field]], [[ice skating|skating]], [[bowling]], [[snooker]], [[chess]], and other sports. Afghanistan's sports teams are increasingly celebrating titles at international events. Its [[Afghanistan national basketball team|basketball team]] won the first team sports title at the [[2010 South Asian Games]]. Later that year, the country's [[Afghanistan national cricket team|cricket team]] followed as it won the [[2009–10 ICC Intercontinental Cup]]. In 2012, the country's [[Afghanistan national 3x3 team|3x3 basketball team]] won the gold medal at the [[3-on-3 basketball at the 2012 Asian Beach Games|2012 Asian Beach Games]]. In 2013, Afghanistan's [[Afghanistan national football team|football team]] followed as it won the [[SAFF Championship]]. The [[Afghan national cricket team]], which was formed in 2001, participated in the [[2009 ICC World Cup Qualifier]], [[2010 ICC World Cricket League Division One]] and the [[2010 ICC World Twenty20]]. It won the [[ACC Twenty20 Cup]] in 2007, 2009, 2011 and 2013. The team eventually made it and played in the [[2015 Cricket World Cup]]. The [[Afghanistan Cricket Board]] (ACB) is the official governing body of the sport and is headquartered in Kabul. The [[Alokozay Kabul International Cricket Ground]] serves as the nation's main cricket stadium. There are several other stadiums throughout the country, including the [[Ghazi Amanullah Khan International Cricket Stadium]] near [[Jalalabad]]. Domestically, cricket is played between teams from different provinces. The [[Afghanistan national football team]] has been competing in international [[Association football|football]] since 1941. The national team plays its home games at the [[Ghazi Stadium]] in Kabul, while [[football in Afghanistan]] is governed by the [[Afghanistan Football Federation]]. The national team has never competed or qualified for the [[FIFA World Cup]] but has recently won an international football trophy in 2013. The country also has a national team in the sport of futsal, a 5-a-side variation of football. The traditional and the national sport of Afghanistan is [[buzkashi]], mainly popular in the north, but also having a following in other parts of the country. It is similar to [[polo]], played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. The [[Afghan Hound]] (a type of running dog) originated in Afghanistan and was formerly used in [[wolf hunting with dogs|wolf hunting]]. In 2002, traveler [[Rory Stewart]] reported that dogs were still used for wolf hunting in remote areas.", "id": "737", "title": "Afghanistan", "categories": ["Afghanistan", "Iranian Plateau", "Islamic republics", "Landlocked countries", "Least developed countries", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Countries in Asia", "Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "Pashto-speaking countries and territories", "Persian-speaking countries and territories", "Iranian countries and territories", "Central Asian countries", "South Asian countries", "1709 establishments in Asia", "States and territories established in 1709", "States and territories established in 1747", "Territories under military occupation"], "seealso": ["Outline of Afghanistan", "Index of Afghanistan-related articles"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Albania''' ( ; or ), officially the '''Republic of Albania''' (), is a country in [[Southeast Europe|Southeastern Europe]]. It is located on the [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic]] and [[Ionian Sea]] within the [[Mediterranean Sea]], and shares [[land border]] with [[Montenegro]] to the northwest, [[Kosovo]] to the northeast, [[North Macedonia]] to the east, [[Greece]] to the south; and [[maritime border]] with Greece, Montenegro and [[Italy]] to the west. [[Tirana]] is its capital and largest city, followed by [[Durrës]], [[Vlorë]] and [[Shkodër]]. [[Geography of Albania|Geographically]], Albania displays varied climatic, geological, hydrological, and morphological conditions, defined in an area of . It possesses significant diversity with the landscape ranging from the snow-capped mountains in the [[Albanian Alps]] as well as the [[Korab]], [[Central Mountain Range, Albania#Skanderbeg Mountains|Skanderbeg]], [[Pindus Mountains|Pindus]] and [[Ceraunian Mountains]] to the hot and sunny coasts of the [[Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast|Albanian Adriatic]] and [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast|Ionian Sea]] along the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean Sea]]. [[History of Albania|Historically]], Albania has been inhabited by numerous civilisations such as the [[Illyrians]], [[Thracians]], [[Ancient Greek]], [[Roman Empire|Romans]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Venetian Empire|Venetians]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]]. The [[Albanians]] established the autonomous [[Principality of Arbër]] in the 12th century. The [[Kingdom of Albania (medieval)|Kingdom of Albania]] and [[Principality of Albania (medieval)|Principality of Albania]] formed between the 13th and 14th centuries. Prior to the [[Ottoman Albania|Ottoman conquest of Albania]] in the 15th century, the [[Skanderbeg#Rebellion against the Ottomans|Albanian resistance]] to Ottoman expansion into Europe led by [[Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg]] won them acclaim over most of Europe. Between the 18th and 19th centuries, cultural developments, widely attributed to Albanians having gathered both spiritual and intellectual strength, conclusively led to the [[Albanian Renaissance]]. After the defeat of the Ottomans in the [[Balkan Wars]], the modern [[nation state]] of Albania [[Declaration of independence of Albania|declared independence]] in 1912. In the 20th century, the [[Kingdom of Albania (1928–39)|Kingdom of Albania]] was invaded by [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] which formed [[Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Greater Albania]] before becoming a [[Albanian Kingdom (1943–44)|protectorate]] of [[Nazi Germany]]. [[Enver Hoxha]] formed the [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania]] after [[World War II]], modeled under the terms of [[Hoxhaism]]. The [[Revolutions of 1989|Revolutions of 1991]] concluded the [[fall of communism in Albania]] and eventually the establishment of the current Republic of Albania. [[Politics of Albania|Politically]], Albania is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional republic]] and a [[developing country]] with an upper-middle income [[Economy of Albania|economy]] dominated by the service sector, followed by manufacturing. It went through a process of transition following the end of communism in 1990, from [[centralized planning]] to a [[market-based economy]]. Albania provides [[universal health care]] and free primary and secondary [[Education in Albania|education]] to its citizens. Albania is a member of the United Nations, [[World Bank]], [[UNESCO]], [[NATO]], [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], [[Council of Europe|COE]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], and [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|OIC]]. It is an [[Accession of Albania to the European Union|official candidate]] for membership in the [[European Union]]. It is one of the founding members of the [[Energy Community]], including the [[Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation]] and [[Union for the Mediterranean]].", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The term Albania is the [[medieval Latin]] name of the country. It may be derived from the [[Illyrian tribe]] of [[Albani (Illyrian tribe)|Albani]] () recorded by [[Ptolemy]], the geographer and astronomer from [[Alexandria]], who drafted a map in 150 AD which shows the city of [[Albanopolis]] located northeast of [[Durrës]]. The term may have a continuation in the name of a medieval settlement called [[Principality of Arbanon|Albanon]] or Arbanon, although it is not certain that this was the same place. In his history written in the 10th century, the [[Byzantine]] historian [[Michael Attaliates]] was the first to refer to [[Albanoi]] as having taken part in a revolt against [[Constantinople]] in 1043 and to the Arbanitai as subjects of the Duke of [[Dyrrachium]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], the [[Albanians|Albanian]] called their country '''' and referred to themselves as ''''. Nowadays, Albanians call their country ''''. The words ''Shqipëri'' and ''Shqiptar'' are attested from 14th century onward, but it was only at the end of 17th and beginning of the early 18th centuries that the placename ''Shqipëria'' and the ethnic demonym ''Shqiptarë'' gradually replaced ''Arbëria'' and ''Arbëreshë'' amongst [[Albanian language|Albanian]] speakers. The two terms are popularly interpreted as \"Land of the Eagles\" and \"Children of the Eagles\".", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Prehistory"], "text": "The first attested traces of [[neanderthal]] presence in the territory of Albania dates back to the [[Middle Paleolithic|middle]] and [[upper Paleolithic]] period and were discovered in [[Xarrë]] and at [[Mount Dajt]] in the adjacent region of [[Tirana]]. Archaeological sites from this period include the [[Kamenica Tumulus]], [[Konispol]] Cave and [[Pellumbas Cave]]. The discovered objects in a cave near Xarrë include [[flint]] and [[jasper]] objects along with fossilised animal bones, while those discoveries at Mount Dajt comprise bone and stone tools similar to those of the [[Aurignacian culture]]. They also demonstrate notable similarities with objects of the equivalent period found at Crvena Stijena in [[Montenegro]] and northwestern [[Greece]]. Multiple artifacts from the [[Iron Age|Iron]] and [[Bronze Age]] near [[tumulus]] burials have been unearthed in central and southern Albania, which has similar affinity with the sites in southwestern [[Macedonia (region)|Macedonia]] and [[Lefkada]]. Archaeologists have come to the conclusion that these regions were inhabited from the middle of the third millennium BC by [[Indo-European migrations|Indo-European people]] who spoke a [[Proto-Greek language]]. Hence, a part of this historical population later moved to [[Mycenae]] around 1600 BC and properly established the [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean civilisation]].", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Antiquity"], "text": "In ancient times, the incorporated territory of Albania was historically inhabited by [[Indo-European people]], among them numerous [[Illyrians|Illyrian]] [[Illyrian tribe|tribes]], [[Ancient Greek]] and [[Thracians]]. In view of the Illyrian tribes, there is no evidence that these tribes used any collective nomenclature for themselves, while it is regarded to be unlikely that they used a common [[endonym]]. The endonym ''Illyrians'' seems to be the name applied to a specific Illyrian tribe, which was the first to come in liaison with the Ancient Greeks resulting the endonym ''Illyrians'' to be applied ''[[pars pro toto]]'' to all people of similar language and customs. The territory referred to as [[Illyria]] corresponded roughly to the area east of the [[Adriatic Sea]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] extending in the south to the mouth of the [[Vjosë]]. The first account of the Illyrian groups comes from [[Periplus of the Euxine Sea]], an ancient Greek text written in the middle of the 4th century BC. The west was inhabited by the Thracian tribe of the [[Bryges]] while the south was inhabited by the Ancient Greek-speaking tribe of the [[Chaonians]], whose capital was at [[Phoenice]]. Other colonies such as [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]], [[Epidamnos]] and [[Amantia]], were established by Ancient Greek city-states on the coast by the 7th century BC. The Illyrian [[Ardiaei]] tribe, centered in Montenegro, ruled over most of the territory of Albania. Their [[Ardiaean Kingdom]] reached its greatest extent under [[Agron of Illyria|King Agron]], the son of [[Pleuratus II]]. Agron extended his rule over other neighboring tribes as well. Following Agron's death in 230 BC, his wife, [[Teuta]], inherited the Ardiaean kingdom. Teuta's forces extended their operations further southward to the Ionian Sea. In 229 BC, Rome declared war on the kingdom for extensively plundering Roman ships. The war ended in Illyrian defeat in 227 BC. Teuta was eventually succeeded by [[Gentius]] in 181 BC. Gentius clashed with the Romans in 168 BC, initiating the [[Third Illyrian War]]. The conflict resulted in Roman conquest of the region by 167 BC. The Romans split the region into three administrative divisions.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Middle Ages"], "text": "The [[Roman Empire]] was split in 395 upon the death of [[Theodosius I]] into an [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern]] and [[Western Roman Empire]] in part because of the increasing pressure from threats during the [[Barbarian Invasions]]. From the 6th century into the 7th century, the [[South Slavs|Slavs]] crossed the [[Danube]] and largely absorbed the indigenous Ancient Greeks, Illyrians and Thracians in the [[Balkans]]; thus, the Illyrians were mentioned for the last time in historical records in the 7th century. In the 11th century, the [[Great Schism of 1054|Great Schism]] formalised the break of communion between the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Western Catholic Church]] that is reflected in Albania through the emergence of a Catholic north and Orthodox south. The Albanian people inhabited the west of [[Lake Ochrida]] and the upper valley of [[Shkumbin|River Shkumbin]] and established the [[Principality of Arbanon]] in 1190 under the leadership of [[Progon of Kruja]]. The realm was succeeded by his sons [[Gjin Progoni|Gjin]] and Dhimitri. Upon the death of Dhimiter, the territory came under the rule of the Albanian-Greek [[Gregory Kamonas]] and subsequently under the [[Golem of Kruja]]. In the 13th century, the principality was dissolved. Arbanon is considered to be the first sketch of an Albanian state, that retained a [[semi-autonomous]] status as the western extremity of the [[Byzantine Empire]], under the Byzantine [[Doukas|Doukai]] of [[Despotate of Epirus|Epirus]] or [[Laskaris|Laskarids]] of [[Empire of Nicaea|Nicaea]]. Towards the end of the 12th and beginning of the 13th centuries, [[Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)|Serb]] and [[Venetian Empire|Venetians]] started to take possession over the territory. The [[ethnogenesis]] of the Albanians is uncertain; however the first undisputed mention of Albanians dates back in historical records from 1079 or 1080 in a work by [[Michael Attaliates]], who referred to the [[Albanoi]] as having taken part in a revolt against [[Constantinople]]. At this point the Albanians were fully Christianized.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Middle Ages"], "text": "Few years after the dissolution of Arbanon, [[Charles I of Naples|Charles of Anjou]] concluded an agreement with the Albanian rulers, promising to protect them and their ancient liberties. In 1272, he established the [[Kingdom of Albania (medieval)|Kingdom of Albania]] and conquered regions back from the [[Despotate of Epirus]]. The kingdom claimed all of central Albania territory from [[Dyrrhachium]] along the Adriatic Sea coast down to [[Butrint]]. A catholic political structure was a basis for the papal plans of spreading [[Catholicism]] in the Balkan Peninsula. This plan found also the support of [[Helen of Anjou]], a cousin of Charles of Anjou. Around 30 Catholic churches and monasteries were built during her rule mainly in northern Albania. Internal power struggles within the Byzantine Empire in the 14th century enabled Serbs' most powerful medieval ruler, [[Stefan Dusan]], to establish a [[Serbian Empire|short-lived empire]] that included all of Albania except Durrës. In 1367, various Albanian rulers established the [[Despotate of Arta]]. During that time, several [[Albanian principalities]] were created, notably the [[Balsha]], [[Thopia family|Thopia]], [[Kastrioti Principality|Kastrioti]], [[Muzaka family|Muzaka]] and [[Arianiti family|Arianiti]]. In the first half of the 15th century, the [[Ottoman Empire]] invaded most of Albania, and the [[League of Lezhë]] was held under [[Skanderbeg]] as a ruler, who became the national hero of the Albanian medieval history.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Middle Ages", "Ottoman Empire"], "text": "With the [[fall of Constantinople]], the Ottoman Empire continued an extended period of conquest and expansion with its borders going deep into [[Ottoman conquest of the Balkans|Southeast Europe]]. They reached the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]] in 1385 and erected their garrisons across [[Southern Albania]] in 1415 and then occupied most of Albania in 1431. Thousands of Albanians consequently fled to Western Europe, particularly to [[Calabria]], [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]] and [[Kingdom of Sicily|Sicily]], whereby others sought protection at the often inaccessible [[Geography of Albania|Mountains of Albania]]. The Albanians, as Christians, were considered as an [[Rayah|inferior class]] of people, and as such they were subjected to heavy [[Jizya|tax]] among others by the [[Devshirme]] system that allowed the [[Sultan]] to collect a requisite percentage of Christian adolescents from their families to compose the [[Janissary]]. The Ottoman conquest was also accompanied with the gradual process of [[Islamisation]] and the rapid construction of mosques which consequently modified the religious picture of Albania. A prosperous and longstanding revolution erupted after the formation of the [[League of Lezhë|Assembly of Lezhë]] until the [[Siege of Shkodra|Siege of Shkodër]] under the leadership of [[Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg]], multiple times defeating major Ottoman armies led by [[Sultan]] [[Murad II]] and [[Mehmed II]]. Skanderbeg managed to gather several of the Albanian principals, amongst them the [[Arianiti family|Arianiti]], [[Dukagjini family|Dukagjini]], [[Zaharia family|Zaharia]] and [[Thopia family|Thopia]], and establish a centralised authority over most of the non-conquered territories, becoming the [[Skanderbeg|Lord of Albania]]. Skanderbeg consistently pursued the goal relentlessly but rather unsuccessfully to constitute a European coalition against the Ottomans. He thwarted every attempt by the Ottomans to regain Albania, which they envisioned as a springboard for the invasion of Italy and Western Europe. His unequal fight against them won the esteem of Europe also among others financial and military aid from the [[Papacy]] and [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] and [[Republic of Ragusa|Ragusa]]. When the Ottomans were gaining a firm foothold in the region, Albanian towns were organised into four principal [[sanjaks]]. The government fostered trade by settling a sizeable Jewish colony of refugees fleeing persecution in Spain. The city of [[Vlorë]] saw passing through its ports imported merchandise from Europe such as velvets, cotton goods, mohairs, carpets, spices and leather from [[Bursa]] and [[Constantinople]]. Some citizens of Vlorë even had business associates throughout Europe. The phenomenon of Islamisation among the Albanians became primarily widespread from the 17th century and continued into the 18th century. Islam offered them equal opportunities and advancement within the Ottoman Empire. However, motives for conversion were, according to some scholars, diverse depending on the context though the lack of source material does not help when investigating such issues. Because of increasing suppression of Catholicism, mostly catholic Albanians converted in the 17th century, while orthodox Albanians followed suit mainly in the following century.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Middle Ages", "Ottoman Empire"], "text": "Since the Albanians were seen as strategically important, they made up a significant proportion of the [[Ottoman military]] and bureaucracy. A couple of Muslim Albanians attained important political and military positions who culturally contributed to the broader [[Muslim world]]. Enjoying this privileged position, they held various high administrative positions with over two dozen Albanian [[Grand Viziers]] among others members of the prominent [[Köprülü family]], [[Zagan Pasha]], [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]] and [[Ali Pasha of Tepelena]] however, two sultans such as [[Bayezid II]] and [[Mehmed III]] had both mothers of Albanian origin.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Rilindja"], "text": "The [[Albanian Renaissance]] was a period with its roots in the late 18th century and continuing into the 19th century, during which the Albanian people gathered spiritual and intellectual strength for an independent cultural and political life within an [[Independent Albania|independent nation]]. Modern [[Albanian culture]] flourished too, especially [[Albanian literature]] and [[Albanian art|arts]], and was frequently linked to the influences of the [[Romanticism]] and [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] principles. Prior to the [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rise of nationalism]], Albania was under the rule of the Ottoman Empire for almost five centuries, and Ottoman authorities suppressed any expression of national unity or conscience by the Albanian people. Through literature, Albanians started to make a conscious effort to awaken feelings of pride and unity among their people that would call to mind the rich history and hopes for a more decent future. The victory of Russia over the Ottoman Empire following the [[Russian-Ottoman War]] resulted the execution of the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] which overlooked to assign Albanian-populated lands to the Slavic and Greek neighbours. However, the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]] consequently blocked the arrangement and caused the [[Treaty of Berlin (1878)|Treaty of Berlin]]. From this point, Albanians started to organise themselves with the goal to protect and unite the Albanian-populated lands into a unitary nation, leading to the formation of the [[League of Prizren]]. The league had initially the assistance of the Ottoman authorities whose position was based on the religious solidarity of Muslim people and landlords connected with the [[Ottoman Porte|Ottoman administration]]. They favoured and protected the Muslim solidarity and called for defense of Muslim lands simultaneously constituting the reason for titling the league [[League of Prizren#Formation|Committee of the Real Muslims]]. Approximately 300 Muslims participated in the assembly composed by delegates from Bosnia, the [[sanjakbey|administrator]] of the [[Sanjak of Prizren]] as representatives of the central authorities and no delegates from [[Vilayet of Scutari]]. Signed by only 47 Muslim deputies, the league issued the [[Kararname (League of Prizren)|Kararname]] that contained a proclamation that the people from northern Albania, [[Epirus]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] are willing to defend the [[territorial integrity]] of the Ottoman Empire by all possible means against the troops of [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]], [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]]. Ottomans authorities cancelled their assistance when the league, under [[Abdyl Frashëri]], became focused on working toward Albanian autonomy and requested merging four [[Ottoman vilayet|vilayet]], including [[Kosovo Vilayet|Kosovo]], [[Scutari Vilayet|Shkodër]], [[Monastir Vilayet|Monastir]] and [[Janina Vilayet|Ioannina]], into an unified vilayet, the [[Albanian Vilayet]]. The league used military force to prevent the annexing areas of [[Plav Municipality|Plav]] and [[Gusinje]] assigned to Montenegro. After several successful battles with Montenegrin troops, such as the [[Battle of Novšiće]], the league was forced to retreat from their contested regions. The league was later defeated by the Ottoman army sent by the sultan.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Rilindja", "Independence"], "text": "Albania [[Albanian Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from the Ottoman Empire on 28 November 1912, accompanied with the establishment of the [[Senate of Albania|Senate]] and [[Provisional Government of Albania|Government]] by the [[Assembly of Vlorë]] on 4 December 1912. Its sovereignty was recognised by the [[London Conference of 1912–1913|Conference of London]]. On 29 July 1913, the [[Treaty of London (1913)|Treaty of London]] delineated the borders of the country and its neighbors, leaving many Albanians outside Albania, predominantly [[Partition (politics)|partitioned]] between [[Kingdom of Montenegro|Montenegro]], [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Kingdom of Greece|Greece]]. Headquartered in Vlorë, the [[International Commission of Control]] was established on 15 October 1913 to take care of the administration of newly established Albania, until its own political institutions were in order. The [[International Gendarmerie]] was established as the first law enforcement agency of the [[Principality of Albania]]. In November, the first gendarmerie members arrived in the country. Prince of Albania [[Wilhelm of Wied]] ''(Princ Vilhelm Vidi)'' was selected as the first prince of the principality. On 7 March, he arrived in the provisional capital of [[Durrës]] and started to organise his government, appointing [[Turhan Pasha Përmeti]] to form the first Albanian cabinet. In November 1913, the Albanian pro-Ottoman forces had offered the throne of Albania to the Ottoman war Minister of Albanian origin, [[Ahmed Izzet Pasha]]. The pro-Ottoman peasants believed that the new regime was a tool of the six Christian [[Great Power]] and local landowners, that owned half of the arable land. In February 1914, the [[Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus]] was proclaimed in [[Gjirokastër]] by the local [[Greeks in Albania|Greek population]] against incorporation to Albania. This initiative was short lived, and in 1921 the southern provinces were incorporated into the Albanian Principality. Meanwhile, the [[Peasant Revolt in Albania|revolt of Albanian peasants]] against the new Albanian regime erupted under the leadership of the group of Muslim clerics gathered around [[Essad Pasha Toptani]], who proclaimed himself the savior of Albania and Islam. In order to gain support of the [[Mirdita]] Catholic volunteers from the northern part of Albania, Prince [[Wilhelm of Wied|Wied]] appointed their leader, [[Prênk Bibë Doda]], to be the foreign minister of the Principality of Albania. In May and June 1914, the International Gendarmerie was joined by [[Isa Boletini]] and his men, mostly from [[Kosovo]], and northern [[Mirdita]] Catholics, were defeated by the rebels who captured most of Central Albania by the end of August 1914. The regime of Prince Wied collapsed, and he left the country on 3 September 1914.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "First Republic"], "text": "Following the end of the government of [[Fan Noli]], the parliament adopted a new constitution and proclaimed the country as a parliamentary republic in which King [[Zog I of Albania]] (Ahmet Muhtar Zogu) served as the [[head of state]] for a seven-year term. Immediately after, [[Tirana]] was endorsed officially as the country's permanent capital. The politics of Zogu was authoritarian and conservative with the primary aim of the maintenance of stability and order. He was forced to adopt a policy of cooperation with Italy where a pact had been signed between both countries, whereby Italy gained a monopoly on shipping and trade concessions. Italians exercised control over nearly every Albanian official through money and patronage. In 1928, the country was eventually replaced by [[Kingdom of Albania (1928–1939)|another monarchy]] with a strong support by the [[Italian Fascism|fascist regime]] of Italy however, both maintained close relations until the [[Italian invasion of Albania|Italian invasion]] of the country. Zogu remained a conservative but initiated reforms and placed great emphasis on the development of infrastructure. In an attempt at social modernisation, the custom of adding one's region to one's name was dropped. He also made donations of land to international organisations for the building of schools and hospitals. The armed forces were trained and supervised by instructors from Italy, and as a counterweight, he kept British officers in the [[Gendarmerie]] despite strong Italian pressure to remove them. After being militarily occupied by Italy from 1939 until 1943, the [[Albanian Kingdom (1939–43)|Kingdom of Albania]] was a [[protectorate]] and a [[Dependent territory|dependency]] of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] governed by [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]] and his government. In October 1940, Albania served as a staging ground for an unsuccessful Italian [[Greco-Italian War|invasion of Greece]]. A counterattack resulted in a sizeable portion of southern Albania coming under Greek military control until April 1941 when Greece capitulated during the [[Battle of Greece|German invasion]]. In April 1941, territories of [[Yugoslavia]] with substantial Albanian population were annexed to Albania inclusively western Macedonia, a strip of eastern Montenegro, the town of [[Tutin, Serbia|Tutin]] in central Serbia and most of Kosovo. Germans started to occupy the country in September 1943 and subsequently announced that they would recognise the independence of a neutral Albania and set about organising a new government, military and law enforcement. [[Balli Kombëtar]], which had fought against Italy, formed a neutral government and side by side with the Germans fought against the communist-led [[National Liberation Movement (Albania)|National Liberation Movement]] of Albania. During the last years of the war, the country fell into a civil war-like state between the communists and nationalists. The communists defeated the last anti-communist forces in the south in 1944. Before the end of November, the main German troops had withdrawn from Tirana, and the communists took control by attacking it. The partisans entirely liberated the country from German occupation on 29 November 1944. A provisional government, which the communists had formed at Berat in October, administered Albania with [[Enver Hoxha]] as the head of government.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "First Republic"], "text": "By the end of the [[Second World War]], the main military and political force of the nation, the Communist party sent forces to northern Albania against the nationalists to eliminate its rivals. They faced open resistance in [[Nikaj-Mërtur]], [[Dukagjin highlands|Dukagjin]] and [[Kelmendi (tribe)|Kelmend]] led by [[Prek Cali]]. On 15 January 1945, a clash took place between partisans of the first Brigade and nationalist forces at the Tamara Bridge, resulting in the defeat of the nationalist forces. About 150 [[Kelmendi (tribe)|Kelmendi]] people were killed or tortured. This event was the starting point of many other issues which took place during [[Enver Hoxha]]'s dictatorship. [[Class conflict|Class struggle]] was strictly applied, human freedom and human rights were denied. The Kelmend region was almost isolated by both the border and by a lack of roads for another 20 years, the institution of [[agricultural cooperative]] brought about economic decline. Many Kelmendi people fled, and some were executed trying to cross the border.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Communism"], "text": "In the aftermath of World War II and the defeat of the [[Axis powers|Axis Powers]], the country became initially a [[Soviet satellite|satellite state]] of the [[Soviet Union]], and Enver Hoxha emerged as the leader of the newly established [[People's Socialist Republic of Albania|People's Republic of Albania]]. Soviet-Albanian relations [[Soviet–Albanian split|began to deteriorate]] after Stalin's death in 1953. At this point, the country started to develop foreign relations with other communist countries, among others with the [[People's Republic of China]]. During this period, the country experienced an increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, a rapid collectivisation and economic growth which led to a higher standard of living. The government called for the development of infrastructure and most notably the introduction of a [[Hekurudha Shqiptare|railway system]] that completely revamped transportation. The new land reform laws were passed granting ownership of the land to the workers and peasants who tilled it. Agriculture became [[Worker cooperative|cooperative]], and production increased significantly, leading to the country becoming agriculturally self-sufficient. In the field of education, illiteracy was eliminated among the country's adult population. The government also oversaw the emancipation of women and the expansion of healthcare and education throughout the country. The average annual increase in the country's national income was 29% and 56% higher than the world and European average, respectively. The nation incurred large debts initially with Yugoslavia until 1948, then the Soviet Union until 1961 and China from the middle of the 1950s. The constitution of the communist regime did not allow taxes on individuals, instead, taxes were imposed on cooperatives and other organisations, with much the same effect. Today a [[secular state]] without any [[official religion]], [[Freedom of religion in Albania|religious freedoms]] and practices were severely curtailed during the communist era with all forms of worship being outlawed. In 1945, the Agrarian Reform Law meant that large swaths of property owned by religious groups were nationalised, mostly the [[waqfs]] along with the estates of mosques, tekkes, monasteries and dioceses. Many believers, along with the [[ulema]] and many priests, were arrested and executed. In 1949, a new Decree on Religious Communities required that all their activities be sanctioned by the state alone. After hundreds of mosques and dozens of Islamic libraries containing priceless manuscripts were destroyed, Hoxha proclaimed Albania the world's first [[State atheism|atheist state]] in 1967. The churches had not been spared either and many were converted into cultural centres for young people. A 1967 law banned all fascist, religious, and antisocialist activity and propaganda. Preaching religion carried a three to ten-year prison sentence. Nonetheless, many Albanians continued to practice their beliefs secretly. The anti-religious policy of Hoxha attained its most fundamental legal and political expression a decade later: \"The state recognizes no religion\", states the 1976 constitution, \"and supports and carries out atheistic propaganda in order to implant a scientific materialistic world outlook in people\".", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Fourth Republic"], "text": "After forty years of communism and [[Isolationism|isolation]] as well as the [[revolutions of 1989]], people, most notably students, became politically active and campaigned against the government that led to the transformation of the existing order. Following the popular support in the first [[multi-party elections]] of [[Albanian parliamentary election, 1991|1991]], the communists retained a stronghold in the [[Parliament of Albania|parliament]] until the victory in the [[Albanian parliamentary election, 1992|general elections]] of 1992 led by the [[Democratic Party of Albania|Democratic Party]]. Considerable economic and financial resources were devoted to [[Pyramid schemes in Albania|pyramid schemes]] that were widely supported by the government. The schemes swept up somewhere between one sixth and one third of the population of the country. Despite the warnings of the [[International Monetary Fund]], [[Sali Berisha]] defended the schemes as large investment firms, leading more people to redirect their remittances and sell their homes and cattle for cash to deposit in the schemes. The schemes began to collapse in late 1996, leading many of the investors to join initially peaceful protests against the government, requesting their money back. The protests turned violent in February 1997 as government forces responded by firing on the demonstrators. In March, the Police and Republican Guard deserted, leaving their armouries open. These were promptly emptied by militias and criminal gangs. The resulting [[Albanian Civil War|civil war]] caused a wave of evacuations of foreign nationals and refugees. The crisis led both [[Aleksandër Meksi]] and [[Sali Berisha]] to resign from office in the wake of the general election. In April 1997, [[Operation Alba]], a UN peacekeeping force led by Italy, entered the country with two goals exclusively to assist with the evacuation of expatriates and to secure the ground for international organisations. The main international organisation that was involved was the [[Western European Union]]'s [[Albanian civil war of 1997#International intervention|multinational]] [[Albanian Police]] element, which worked with the government to restructure the [[Judicial system of Albania|judicial system]] and simultaneously the Albanian police.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Contemporary"], "text": "Following the disintegration of the [[Communist Albania|communist system]], Albania focussed on an active process of [[Westernisation]] with the goal of accession to the [[European Union]] (EU) and [[North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO). In 2009, the country, along with [[Croatia]], gained [[Albania–NATO relations|active membership]] for accession to the NATO simultaneously becoming among the first countries in Southeast Europe to enter the partnership for peace programme. Out side of it, it also [[Accession of Albania to the European Union|applied]] to join the European Union on 28 April 2009 however, it received, upon its application, an [[Future enlargement of the European Union|official candidate status]] on 24 June 2014. Following its application, the EU twice rejected the country's accession to its EU membership. Between 2013 and 2017, [[Edi Rama]] of the [[Socialist Party of Albania|Socialist Party]] won both the [[Albanian parliamentary election, 2013|2013]] and [[Albanian parliamentary election, 2017|2017 parliamentary elections]]. As a [[Prime Minister of Albania|Prime Minister]], he implemented numerous reforms focused on [[Modernism|modernising]] the [[Economy of Albania|economy]], as well as democratising the state institutions, including the country's [[Judiciary of Albania|judiciary]] and [[Law enforcement in Albania|law enforcement]]. Unemployment has been steadily reduced while having the 4th lowest [[List of countries by unemployment rate|unemployment rate]] in the Balkans. Rama has also placed [[gender equality]] at the center of its agenda, since 2017 almost 50% of the ministers are female, making it the largest number of women serving in the country's history. On 26 November 2019, a 6.4 [[Moment magnitude scale|magnitude]] [[earthquake]] ravaged Albania with the [[epicenter]] positioned southwest of the town of [[Mamurras]]. The tremor was felt in [[Tirana]] and in places as far away as [[Taranto]], Italy, and [[Belgrade]], Serbia, thus, the most affected areas were the coastal city of [[Durrës]] and [[Kodër-Thumanë]]. Response to the earthquake included substantial humanitarian aid, designed to help the Albanian people, from the [[Albanian diaspora]] and several countries [[2019 Albania earthquake#International assistance|around the world]]. On 9 March 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Albania|coronavirus disease 2019]] (COVID-19) was confirmed to have spread to Albania. From March to June, the government declared a [[state of emergency]], as a measure to limit the rapid spread of the pandemic in the country. On 28 July 2020, the country reported its 5 thousandth case, at this time, there had been nearly 150 reported deaths.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Albania has an area of and is located on the [[Balkan Peninsula]] in [[Southern Europe|South]] and [[Southeast Europe]]. Its shoreline faces the [[Adriatic Sea]] to the northwest and the [[Ionian Sea]] to the southwest along the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Albania lies between latitudes [[42nd parallel north|42°]] and [[39th parallel north|39° N]], and longitudes [[21st meridian east|21°]] and [[19th meridian east|19° E]]. Its northernmost point is [[Vërmosh]] at 42° 35' 34\" northern latitude; the southernmost is [[Konispol]] at 39° 40' 0\" northern latitude; the westernmost point is [[Sazan Island|Sazan]] at 19° 16' 50\" eastern longitude; and the easternmost point is [[Vërnik]] at 21° 1' 26\" eastern longitude. The highest point is [[Mount Korab]] at [[Metres above the Adriatic|above the Adriatic]]; the lowest point is the Mediterranean Sea at . The distance from the east to west is and from the north to south about . For a small country, much of Albania rises into mountains and hills that run in different directions across the length and breadth of its territory. The most extensive mountain ranges are the [[Albanian Alps]] in the north, the [[Korab|Korab Mountains]] in the east, the [[Pindus Mountains]] in the southeast, the [[Ceraunian Mountains]] in the southwest and the [[Skanderbeg Mountains]] in the centre. Perhaps the most remarkable feature of the country is the presence of numerous important lakes. The [[Lake of Shkodër]] is the largest lake in [[List of largest lakes of Europe|Southern Europe]] and located in northwest. In the [[Albanian Ohrid Lake Coast|southeast]] rises the [[Lake of Ohrid]] that is one of the oldest continuously existing lakes in the world. Farther south extends the [[Prespa Lake|Large]] and [[Small Prespa Lake|Small Lake of Prespa]], which are among the highest positioned lakes in the Balkans. Rivers rise mostly in the east of Albania and discharge into the Adriatic Sea but as well as into the Ionian Sea to a lesser extent. The longest river in the country, measured from its mouth to its source, is the [[Drin River|Drin]] that starts at the confluence of its two headwaters, the [[Black Drin|Black]] and [[White Drin]]. Of particular concern is the [[Vjosë]], which represents one of the last intact large river systems in Europe.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Climate"], "text": "The [[climate of Albania|climate]] in the country is extremely variable and diverse owing to the differences in latitude, longitude and altitude. Albania experiences predominantly a [[mediterranean climate|mediterranean]] and [[continental climate]], with four distinct seasons. Defined by the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen classification]], it accommodates five major climatic types ranging from mediterranean and [[Humid subtropical climate|subtropical]] in the western half to [[Oceanic climate|oceanic]], [[Humid continental climate|continental]] and [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] in the eastern half of Albania. The warmest areas of the country are immediately placed along the [[Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast|Adriatic]] and [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast|Ionian Sea Coasts]]. On the contrary, the coldest areas are positioned within the [[Northern Mountain Range (Albania)|northern]] and [[Central Mountain Range (Albania)|eastern highlands]]. The mean monthly temperature ranges between in winter to in summer. The highest temperature of was recorded in [[Kuçovë]] on 18 July 1973. The lowest temperature of was registered in the village of Shtyllë, [[Librazhd]] on 9 January 2017. Rainfall naturally varies from season to season and from year to year. The country receives most of the [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] in winter months and less in summer months. The average precipitation is about . The mean annual precipitation ranges between and depending on geographical location. The [[Northern Mountain Range (Albania)|northwestern]] and [[Southern Mountain Range (Albania)|southeastern highlands]] receive the intenser amount of precipitation, whilst the [[Northern Mountain Range (Albania)|northeastern]] and [[Southern Mountain Range (Albania)|southwestern highlands]] as well as the [[Western Lowlands]] the more limited amount. The [[Albanian Alps]] in the far north of the country are considered to be among the most humid regions of Europe, receiving at least of rain annually. An expedition from the [[University of Colorado]] discovered four [[glacier]] within these mountains at a relatively low altitude of , which is extremely rare for such a southerly latitude. Snowfall occurs frequently in winter in the highlands of the country, particularly on the mountains in the north and east, including the [[Albanian Alps]] and [[Korab]] Mountains. Snow also falls on the coastal areas in the southwest almost every winter such as in the [[Ceraunian Mountains]], where it can lie even beyond March.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Biodiversity"], "text": "A [[biodiversity hotspot]], Albania possesses an exceptionally rich and contrasting [[biodiversity]] on account of its geographical location at the centre of the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the great diversity in its [[climatic]], geological and [[hydrological]] conditions. Because of remoteness, the mountains and hills of Albania are endowed with forests, trees and grasses that are essential to the lives for a wide variety of animals, among others for two of the most [[endangered species]] of the country, the [[Balkan lynx|lynx]] and [[brown bear]], as well as the [[wildcat]], [[gray wolf]], [[red fox]], [[golden jackal]], [[egyptian vulture]] and [[golden eagle]], the latter constituting the national animal of the country. The estuaries, wetlands and lakes are extraordinarily important for the [[greater flamingo]], [[pygmy cormorant]] and the extremely rare and perhaps the most iconic bird of the country, the [[dalmatian pelican]]. Of particular importance are the [[mediterranean monk seal]], [[loggerhead sea turtle]] and [[green sea turtle]] that use to nest on the country's coastal waters and shores. In terms of [[phytogeography]], Albania is part of the [[Boreal Kingdom]] and stretches specifically within the [[Illyria]] province of the [[Circumboreal Region|Circumboreal]] and [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean Region]]. Its territory can be subdivided into four terrestrial [[ecoregion]] of the [[Palearctic realm]] namely within the [[Illyrian deciduous forests]], [[Balkan mixed forests]], [[Pindus Mountains mixed forests]] and [[Dinaric Mountains mixed forests]]. Approximately 3,500 different species of plants can be found in Albania which refers principally to a [[Mediterranean]] and [[Eurasia]] character. The country maintains a vibrant tradition of herbal and [[Medicinal Purposes|medicinal practices]]. At the minimum 300 plants growing locally are used in the preparation of herbs and medicines. The trees within the forests are primarily made up of [[fir]], [[oak]], [[beech]] and [[pine]]. In the 2010 [[Environmental Performance Index]], Albania was ranked 23rd out of 163 countries in the world. It advanced from 23rd to 15th in the 2012 index while simultaneously ranking among the highest in [[Southern Europe|South]] and [[Eastern Europe]], and [[Central Asia]]. In 2005, the country was the 24th greenest country in the world according to the [[Environmental Sustainability Index]]. Nevertheless, for 2016, it was ranked the 13th best performing country on the [[Happy Planet Index]]. Albania had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 6.77 of total 10, ranking it 64th globally out of 172 countries.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Protected areas"], "text": "The [[protected areas of Albania]] are areas designated and managed by the [[Albanian government]]. There are 15 [[national park]], 4 [[ramsar site]], 1 [[biosphere reserve]] and 786 other types of conservation reserves. Albania has fifteen officially designated [[National parks of Albania|national park]] scattered across its territory. Encircled by numerous [[two-thousander]], [[Valbonë Valley National Park]] and [[Theth National Park]] cover a combined territory of within the rugged [[Albanian Alps]] in northern Albania. [[Shebenik-Jabllanicë National Park]] and [[Prespa National Park (Albania)|Prespa National Park]] protect the spectacular mountainous scenery of eastern Albania as well as the country's sections of the [[Prespa Lake|Great]] and [[Small Prespa Lake|Small Lakes of Prespa]]. [[Divjakë-Karavasta National Park]] extends along the central [[Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast]] and possesses one of the largest lagoons in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Lagoon of Karavasta]]. The [[Ceraunian Mountains]] in southern Albania, rising immediately along the [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast]], characterises the topographical picture of [[Llogara National Park]] and continue on the [[Karaburun Peninsula (Albania)|Peninsula of Karaburun]] within the [[Karaburun-Sazan Marine Park]]. Further south sprawls the [[Butrint National Park]] on a peninsula that is surrounded by the [[Lake Butrint|Lake of Butrint]] and [[Vivari Channel|Channel of Vivari]] on the eastern half of the [[Straits of Corfu]]. [[Dajti National Park]] is equipped with a cable car and trails to some spectacular scenery is a popular retreat in the capital, Tirana.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance"], "text": "Albania is a [[parliamentary republic|parliamentary]] [[constitutional republic]] and [[sovereign state]] whose [[Politics of Albania|politics]] operate under a framework laid out in the [[Constitution of Albania|constitution]] wherein the [[President of Albania|president]] functions as the [[head of state]] and the [[Prime Minister of Albania|prime minister]] as the [[head of government]]. The [[sovereignty]] is vested in the [[Albanian people]] and exercised by the Albanian people through their representatives or directly. The [[government of Albania|government]] is based on the separation and balancing of powers among the [[legislative]], [[judiciary]] and executive. The [[legislative power]] is held by the [[Parliament of Albania|parliament]] and is elected every four years by a system of [[party-list proportional representation]] by the Albanian people on the basis of free, equal, universal and periodic [[suffrage]] by [[secret ballot]]. The [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]], codified and based on the [[Napoleonic Code]], is divided between courts with regular civil and criminal jurisdiction and administrative courts. The [[judicial power]] is vested in the [[Supreme Court of Albania|supreme court]], [[Constitutional Court of Albania|constitutional court]], [[Appeals courts of Albania|appeal court]] and [[Administrative Courts in Albania|administrative court]]. [[Law enforcement]] in the country is primarily the responsibility of the [[Albanian Police]], the main and largest state law enforcement agency. It carries out nearly all general police duties including criminal investigation, patrol activity, traffic policing and border control. The [[executive power]] is exercised by the president and prime minister whereby the power of the president is very limited. The president is the [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Albanian Armed Forces|military]] and the representative of the unity of the Albanian people. The tenure of the president depends on the [[Confidence and supply|confidence]] of the parliament and is elected for a five-year [[Term of office|term]] by the parliament by a majority of three-fifths of all its members. The prime minister, appointed by the president and approved by the parliament, is authorized to constitute the [[Cabinet of Albania|cabinet]]. The cabinet is composed primarily of the prime minister inclusively its deputies and ministers.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance", "Foreign relations"], "text": "In the time since the [[Fall of communism in Albania|end of communism]] and [[isolationism]], Albania has extended its responsibilities and position in continental and international affairs, developing and establishing friendly [[Foreign relations of Albania|relations]] with other countries around the world. The country's foreign policy priorities are its [[Accession of Albania to the European Union|accession]] into the [[European Union]] (EU), the [[international recognition of Kosovo]] and the [[expulsion of Cham Albanians]], as well as helping and protecting the rights of the [[Albanians]] in [[Albanians in Kosovo|Kosovo]], [[Albanians in Montenegro|Montenegro]], [[Albanians in Macedonia|North Macedonia]], [[Albanians in greece|Greece]], [[Albanians in south Serbia|Serbia]], [[Arbëreshë people|Italy]] and the [[Albanian diaspora|Diaspora]]. Albania's [[Albania-NATO relations|admission]] into the [[NATO|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] (NATO) was considered by Albanian politicians as a significant ambition for the country's foreign policy. The country has been extensively engaged with the NATO and has maintained its position as a stability factor and a strong ally of the United States and the European Union (EU) in the region of the [[Balkans]]. Albania maintains strong [[Albanian American relations|ties]] with the United States ever after it supported the Albania's independence and democracy. Nowadays, both countries have signed a number of agreements and [[treaties]]. In 2007, Albania welcomed [[George W. Bush]] who became the first President of the United States ever to visit the country. Albania and [[Kosovo]] are culturally, socially and economically very closely rooted due to the Albanian majority population in Kosovo. In 1998, the country contributed in supporting allied efforts to end the [[Kosovo War|humanitarian tragedy in Kosovo]] and secure the peace after the [[NATO bombing of Yugoslavia]]. Albania has been an active member of the United Nations since 1955. They country took on membership for the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council]] from 2005 to 2007 as well as in 2012. It served as vice president of the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|ECOSOC]] in 2006 and 2013. In 2014, it also joined the [[United Nations Human Rights Council]] from 2015 to 2017 and was elected vice president in 2015. Albania is a full member of numerous international organisations inclusively the [[Council of Europe]], [[International Organisation for Migration]], [[World Health Organization]], [[Union for the Mediterranean]], [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]], [[International Monetary Fund]], [[World Trade Organization]] and [[La Francophonie]].", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance", "Military"], "text": "The [[Albanian Armed Forces]] consist of [[Albanian Land Force|Land]], [[Albanian Air Force|Air]] and [[Albanian Naval Force|Naval Force]] and constitute the military and paramilitary forces of the country. They are led by a [[commander-in-chief]] under the supervision of the [[Ministry of Defence (Albania)|Ministry of Defence]] and by the [[President of Albania|President]] as the supreme commander during wartime however, in times of peace its powers are executed through the [[Prime Minister of Albania|Prime Minister]] and the [[Ministry of Defence (Albania)|Defence Minister]]. The chief purpose of the armed forces of Albania is the defence of the independence, the [[sovereignty]] and the [[territorial integrity]] of the country, as well as the participation in humanitarian, combat, non-combat and peace support operations. [[Military service]] is voluntary since 2010 with the age of 19 being the legal minimum age for the duty. Albania has committed to increase the participations in multinational operations. Since the fall of communism, the country has participated in six international missions but participated in only one United Nations mission in [[UNOMIG|Georgia]], where it sent 3 military observers. Since February 2008, Albania has participated officially in NATO's [[Operation Active Endeavor]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It was invited to join NATO on 3 April 2008, and it became a full member on 2 April 2009. Albania reduced the number of active troops from 65,000 in 1988 to 14,500 in 2009. The military now consists mainly of a small fleet of aircraft and sea vessels. In the 1990s, the country scrapped enormous amounts of obsolete hardware from China, such as tanks and [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM systems]]. Increasing the military budget was one of the most important conditions for [[NATO]] integration. Military spending has generally been low. As of 1996 military spending was an estimated 1.5% of the country's GDP, only to peak in 2009 at 2% and fall again to 1.5%.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Governance", "Administrative divisions"], "text": "Albania is defined within a territorial area of in the [[Balkan Peninsula]]. The country is divided into three regions, the [[Northern Albania|Northern]], [[Central Albania|Central]] and [[Southern Albania|Southern Region]], which consist of a number of [[counties of Albania|counties]] (''qarqe'') and [[Municipalities of Albania|municipalities]] (''bashkia''). The highest level of [[Subdivisions of Albania|administrative divisions]] are the twelve constituent counties. Each county has the same status but vary in their areas, [[List of counties of Albania by population|populations]] and contributions to the economy. Nonetheless, they are further subdivided into 61 municipalities with each of them being responsible for geographical, economic, social and cultural purposes inside the counties. The counties were created on 31 July 2000 to replace the 36 former districts. The [[Government of Albania|government]] introduced the new administrative divisions to be implemented in 2015, whereby municipalities were reduced to 61, while the rurals were abolished. The defunct municipalities are known as neighborhoods or villages. There are overall 2980 villages or communities in the entire country, formerly known as localities. The municipalities are the first level of local governance, responsible for local needs and [[Law enforcement in Albania|law enforcement]]. The largest county in Albania, by population, is [[Tirana County]] with over 800,000 people. The smallest county, by population, is [[Gjirokastër County]] with over 70,000 people. The largest in the county, by area, is [[Korçë County]] encompassing of the southeast of Albania. The smallest county, by area, is [[Durrës County]] with an area of in the west of Albania.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "The transition from a socialist [[planned economy]] to a capitalist [[mixed economy]] in Albania has been largely successful. The country has a [[Developing country|developing]] mixed economy classified by the [[World Bank]] as an [[List of countries by GNI (nominal, Atlas method) per capita#Upper-middle-income group|upper-middle income economy]]. In 2016, it had the 4th lowest [[List of countries by unemployment rate|unemployment rate]] in the [[Balkans]] with an estimated value of 14.7%. Its largest trading partners are Italy, Greece, China, Spain, Kosovo and the United States. The [[Albanian lek|lek]] (ALL) is the country's currency and is [[Fixed exchange rate|pegged]] at approximately 132,51 lek per euro. The cities of [[Tirana]] and [[Durrës]] constitute the economic and financial heart of Albania due to their high population, modern infrastructure and strategic geographical location. The country's most important infrastructure facilities take course through both of the cities, connecting the north to the south as well as the west to the east. Among the largest [[List of companies of Albania|companies]] are the petroleum [[Taçi Oil]], [[Albpetrol]], [[ARMO oil refiner|ARMO]] and Kastrati, the mineral [[AlbChrome]], the cement [[Antea Cement|Antea]], the investment [[Samir Mane|BALFIN Group]] and the technology [[Albtelecom]], [[Vodafone Albania|Vodafone]], [[Telekom Albania]] and others. In 2012, Albania's [[GDP per capita]] stood at 30% of the [[European Union]] average, while [[GDP (PPP) per capita]] was 35%. Albania were one of three countries in Europe to record an economic growth in the first quarter of 2010 after the [[global financial crisis]]. The [[International Monetary Fund]] predicted 2.6% growth for Albania in 2010 and 3.2% in 2011. According to the [[Forbes]] , the [[Gross Domestic Product (GDP)]] was growing at 2.8%. The country had a [[trade balance]] of −9.7% and [[unemployment rate]] of 14.7%. The [[Foreign direct investment]] has increased significantly in recent years as the government has embarked on an ambitious program to improve the business climate through fiscal and legislative reforms. The economy is expected to expand in the near term, driven by a recovery in consumption and robust investments. Growth is projected to be 3.2% in 2016, 3.5% in 2017, and 3.8% in 2018.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Primary sector"], "text": "Agriculture in the country is based on small to medium-sized family-owned dispersed units. It remains a significant sector of the [[economy of Albania]]. It employs 41% of the population, and about 24.31% of the land is used for agricultural purposes. One of the earliest farming sites in Europe has been found in the southeast of the country. As part of the pre-accession process of Albania to the [[European Union]], farmers are being aided through [[Instrument for Pre-Accession Assistance|IPA]] funds to improve Albanian agriculture standards. Albania produces significant amounts of fruits (apples, [[olive]], grapes, oranges, lemons, [[apricot]], [[peach]], [[Cherry|cherries]], [[figs]], [[Prunus cerasus|sour cherries]], [[plum]], and [[Strawberry|strawberries]]), [[Vegetable oil|vegetables]] (potatoes, tomatoes, maize, onions, and wheat), [[sugar beet]], tobacco, meat, [[honey]], [[dairy product]], traditional medicine and [[Essential oil|aromatic plants]]. Further, the country is a worldwide significant producer of [[salvia]], [[rosemary]] and [[Gentiana lutea|yellow gentian]]. The country's proximity to the [[Ionian Sea]] and the [[Adriatic Sea]] give the underdeveloped fishing industry great potential. The [[World Bank]] and [[European Community]] economists report that, Albania's fishing industry has good potential to generate export earnings because prices in the nearby Greek and Italian markets are many times higher than those in the Albanian market. The fish available off the coasts of the country are [[carp]], [[trout]], [[sea bream]], [[mussel]] and [[crustacean]]. Albania has one of Europe's longest histories of [[viticulture]]. The today's region was one of the few places where vine was naturally grown during the ice age. The oldest found seeds in the region are 4,000 to 6,000 years old. In 2009, the nation produced an estimated 17,500 tonnes of wine. During the communist era, the production area expanded to some .", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Secondary sector"], "text": "The secondary sector of Albania have undergone many changes and diversification, since the collapse of the communist regime in the country. It is very diversified, from [[Electronics industry|electronics]], [[Manufacturing industries|manufacturing]], [[Textile industry|textiles]], to [[Food industry|food]], [[Cement industry|cement]], [[Mining industry|mining]], and [[Energy industry|energy]]. The [[Antea Cement]] plant in [[Fushë-Krujë]] is considered as one of the largest industrial greenfield investments in the country. Albanian oil and gas is represents of the most promising albeit strictly regulated sectors of its economy. Albania has the [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|second largest oil deposits]] in the [[Balkan peninsula]] after [[Romania]], and the largest [[Patos-Marinza Oil Field|oil reserves]] in Europe. The [[Albpetrol]] company is owned by the Albanian state and monitors the state petroleum agreements in the country. The textile industry has seen an extensive expansion by approaching companies from the [[European Union]] (EU) in Albania. According to the [[Institute of Statistics (Albania)|Institute of Statistics (INSTAT)]] , the textile production marked an annual growth of 5.3% and an annual turnover of around 1.5 billion euros. Albania is a significant minerals producer and is ranked among the world's leading [[chromium]] producers and exporters. The nation is also a notable producer of copper, [[nickel]] and coal. The [[Batra mine]], [[Bulqizë mine]], and [[Thekna mine]] are among the most recognised Albanian mines that are still in operation.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Tertiary sector"], "text": "The [[tertiary sector]] represents the fastest growing sector of the country's economy. 36% of the population work in the service sector which contributes to 65% of the country's GDP. Ever since the end of the 20th century, the [[banking industry]] is a major component of the tertiary sector and remains in good conditions overall due to [[privatization]] and the commendable [[monetary policy]]. Previously one of the most [[Isolationism|isolated]] and controlled countries in the world, [[telecommunication industry]] represents nowadays another major contributor to the sector. It developed largely through privatisation and subsequent investment by both domestic and foreign investors. [[Eagle Mobile|Eagle]], [[Vodafone Albania|Vodafone]] and [[Telekom Albania]] are the leading [[telecommunications service provider]] in the country. Tourism is recognised as an industry of national importance and has been steadily increasing since the beginnings of the 21st century. It directly accounted for 8.4% of GDP in 2016 though including indirect contributions pushes the proportion to 26%. In the same year, the country received approximately 4.74 million visitors mostly from across Europe and the United States as well. The increase of foreign visitors has been dramatic. Albania had only 500,000 visitors in 2005, while in 2012 had an estimated 4.2 million, an increase of 740 percent in only 7 years. In 2015, tourism in summer increased by 25 percent in contrast the previous year according to the country's tourism agency. In 2011, [[Lonely Planet]] named as a top travel destination, while [[The New York Times]] placed Albania as number 4 global touristic destination in 2014. The bulk of the tourist industry is concentrated along the [[Adriatic]] and [[Ionian Sea]] in the west of the country. However, the [[Albanian Riviera]] in the southwest has the most scenic and pristine beaches, and is often called the pearl of the Albanian coast. Its coastline has a considerable length of . The coast has a particular character because it is rich in varieties of virgin beaches, capes, coves, covered bays, lagoons, small gravel beaches, sea caves and many landforms. Some parts of this seaside are very clean ecologically, which represent in this prospective unexplored areas, which are very rare within the [[Mediterranean]]. Other attractions include the mountainous areas such as the [[Albanian Alps]], [[Ceraunian Mountains]] and [[Korab]] Mountains but also the historical cities of [[Berat]], [[Durrës]], [[Gjirokastër]], [[Sarandë]], [[Shkodër]] and [[Korçë]].", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Transport"], "text": "Transportation in Albania is managed within the functions of the [[Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy (Albania)|Ministry of Infrastructure and Energy]] and entities such as the [[Albanian Road Authority]] (ARRSH), responsible for the construction and maintenance of the [[Highways in Albania|highways]] and [[motorways in Albania|motorways]] in Albania, as well as the [[Civil Aviation Authority (Albania)|Albanian Aviation Authority]] (AAC), with the responsibility of coordinating civil aviation and airports in the country. The [[Tirana International Airport Nënë Tereza|international airport]] of [[Tirana]] is the premier air gateway to the country, and is also the principal hub for Albania's national [[flag carrier]] airline, [[Air Albania]]. The airport carried more than 3.3 million passengers in 2019 with connections to many destinations in other countries around [[Europe]], [[Africa]] and [[Asia]]. The country plans to progressively increase the number of airports especially in the south with possible locations in [[Sarandë]], [[Gjirokastër]] and [[Vlorë International Airport|Vlorë]]. The [[Highways in Albania|highways]] and [[motorways in Albania]] are properly maintained and often still under construction and renovation. The [[A1 motorway (Albania)|Autostrada 1]] (A1) represents an integral transportation corridor in Albania and the longest motorway of the country. It will prospectively link [[Durrës]] on the Adriatic Sea across [[Pristina]] in Kosovo with the [[Pan-European Corridor X]] in Serbia. The [[A2 motorway (Albania)|Autostrada 2]] (A2) is part of the [[Adriatic–Ionian motorway|Adriatic–Ionian Corridor]] as well as the [[Pan-European Corridor VIII]] and connects [[Fier]] with [[Vlorë]]. The [[A3 motorway (Albania)|Autostrada 3]] (A3) is currently under construction and will connect, after its completion, [[Tirana]] and [[Elbasan]] with the Pan-European Corridor VIII. When all three corridors are completed, Albania will have an estimated of highway linking it with all of its neighboring countries. [[Port of Durrës|Durrës]] is the busiest and largest [[seaport]] in the country, followed by [[Port of Vlorë|Vlorë]], [[Port of Shëngjin|Shëngjin]] and [[Port of Sarandë|Sarandë]]. , it is as one of the largest passenger ports on the [[Adriatic Sea]] with annual passenger volume of approximately 1.5 million. The principal ports serve a system of ferries connecting Albania with numerous islands and coastal cities in Croatia, Greece and Italy. The rail network is administered by the national railway company [[Hekurudha Shqiptare]] which was extensively promoted by the dictator [[Enver Hoxha]]. There has been a considerable increase in private car ownership and bus usage while rail use decreased since the end of communism. However, a new railway line from Tirana and its airport to Durrës is currently planned. The specific location of this railway, connecting the most populated urban areas in Albania, merely makes it an important economic development project.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Education"], "text": "In the country, education is secular, free, [[Compulsory education|compulsory]] and based on three levels of education segmented in primary, secondary and tertiary education. The academic year is apportioned into two semesters beginning in September or October, and ending in June or July. [[Albanian language|Albanian]] serves as the [[primary language]] of instruction in all [[state school|academic institution]] across the country. The study of a first [[foreign language]] is mandatory and taught most often at elementary and bilingual schools. The languages taught in schools are English, Italian, French and German. The country has a [[school life expectancy]] of 16 years and a [[literacy rate]] of 98.7%, with 99.2% for males and 98.3% for females. Compulsory primary education is divided into two levels, elementary and secondary school, from grade one to five and six to nine, respectively. Pupils are required to attend school from the age of six until they turn 16. Upon successful completion of primary education, all pupils are entitled to attend high schools with specialising in any particular field including arts, [[sport]], [[language]], sciences or technology. The country's tertiary education, an optional stage of formal learning following secondary education, has undergone a thorough reformation and restructuring in compliance with the principles of the [[Bologna Process]]. There is a significant number of private and public [[institutions of higher education]] well dispersed in the major cities of Albania. Studies in tertiary education are organized at three successive levels which include the [[Bachelor's degree|bachelor]], [[Master's degree|master]] and [[Doctorate Degree|doctorate]].", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Health"], "text": "The [[constitution of Albania]] guarantees equal, free and [[universal health care]] for all its citizens. The health care system of the country is currently organised in three levels, among others [[Primary healthcare|primary]], [[Secondary care|secondary]] and [[tertiary healthcare]], and is in a process of modernisation and development. The [[life expectancy]] at birth in Albania is at 77.8 years and ranks [[List of countries by life expectancy|37th]] in the world outperforming several [[developed countries]]. The average [[Life expectancy#Healthy life expectancy|healthy life expectancy]] is at 68.8 years and ranks as well 37th in the world. The country's [[infant mortality rate]] is estimated at 12 per 1,000 live births in 2015. In 2000, the country had the 55th best healthcare performance in the world, as defined by the [[World Health Organization]]. [[Cardiovascular disease]] remain the principal cause of death in the country accounting 52% of total deaths. [[Accident]], injuries, [[Malignant disease|malignant]] and [[respiratory disease]] are other primary causes of death. [[Neuropsychiatric disorders|Neuropsychiatric disease]] has also increased due to recent demographic, social and economic changes in the country. In 2009, the country had a fruit and vegetable supply of 886 grams per capita per day, the fifth highest supply in Europe. In comparison to other developed and developing countries, Albania has a relatively low rate of [[obesity]] probably thanks to the health benefits of the [[Mediterranean diet]]. According to [[List of countries by Body Mass Index (BMI)#WHO Data on Prevalence of Obesity (BMI above 30) (2014)|World Health Organization data from 2016]], 21.7% of adults in the country are clinically [[overweight]], with a [[Body mass index]] (BMI) score of 25 or more.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Energy"], "text": "Due to its geographical location and natural resources, Albania has a wide variety of [[energy resource]] ranging from gas, oil and coal, to [[Wind energy|wind]], [[Solar energy|solar]] and [[hydropower|water]] as well as other [[renewable energy|renewable]] sources. Currently, the electricity generation sector of Albania is dependent on [[hydroelectricity]] simultaneously ranking fifth in the world in percentage terms. The [[Drin (river)|Drin]], located in the north, hosts four [[hydroelectric power station]], including [[Fierza Hydroelectric Power Station|Fierza]], [[Koman Hydroelectric Power Station|Koman]], [[Skavica Hydro Power Plant|Skavica]] and [[Vau i Dejës Hydroelectric Power Station|Vau i Dejës]]. Two other power stations, such as the [[Banjë Hydro Power Plant|Banjë]] and [[Moglicë Hydro Power Plant|Moglicë]], are located along the [[Devoll (river)|Devoll]] in the south. Albania has considerably large deposits of oil. It has the 10th largest oil reserves in Europe and the 58th in the world. The country's main petroleum deposits are located around the [[Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast]] and [[Myzeqe]] Plain within the [[Western Lowlands]], where the country's largest reserve is located. Although, [[Patos-Marinza Oil Field|Patos-Marinza]], also located within the area, is the largest onshore [[oil field]] in Europe. After the completion of the [[Trans Adriatic Pipeline]] (TAP), Albania will be significantly connected to the planned [[Southern Gas Corridor]], that will transport [[natural gas]] from the [[Caspian Sea]] through Albania to Europe. Withal the TAP runs for across Albania's territory before entering the [[Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast]] approximately northwest of [[Fier]]. In 2009, the company [[Enel]] announced plans to build an 800 MW [[Coal Fired Power Plant|coal-fired power plant]] in the country, to diversify electricity sources. The [[water resources]] of Albania are particularly abundant in all the regions of the country and comprise [[Lakes of Albania|lakes]], [[Rivers of Albania|rivers]], springs and groundwater aquifers. The country's available average quantity of [[fresh water]] is estimated at per inhabitant per year, which is one of the highest rates in Europe. According to the data presented by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation]] (JMP) in 2015, about 93% of the country's total population had access to [[improved sanitation]].", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Infrastructure", "Technology"], "text": "After the [[Fall of communism in Albania|fall of communism]] in 1991, human resources in sciences and technology in Albania have drastically decreased. As of various reports, during 1991 to 2005 approximately 50% of the professors and scientists of the universities and science institutions in the country have left Albania. In 2009, the [[Government of Albania|government]] approved the National Strategy for Science, Technology and Innovation in Albania covering the period 2009 to 2015. It aims to triple public spending on [[research and development]] to 0.6% of GDP and augment the share of [[Gross domestic expenditure on R&D|GDE]] from foreign sources, including the framework programmes for research of the [[European Union]], to the point where it covers 40% of research spending, among others. Telecommunication represents one of the fastest growing and dynamic sectors in Albania. [[Vodafone Albania]], [[Telekom Albania]] and [[Albtelecom]] are the three large providers of [[Mobile network operator|mobile]] and [[internet]] in Albania. As of the [[Electronic and Postal Communications Authority (Albania)|Electronic and Postal Communications Authority]] (AKEP) in 2018, the country had approximately 2.7 million active mobile users with almost 1.8 million active broadband subscribers. Vodafone Albania alone served more than 931,000 mobile users, Telekom Albania had about 605,000 users and Albtelecom had more than 272,000 users.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demography"], "text": "As defined by the [[Institute of Statistics (Albania)|Institute of Statistics]] (INSTAT), the [[Demographics of Albania|population]] of Albania was estimated in 2020 at 2,845,955. The country's [[total fertility rate]] of 1.51 children born per woman is one of the [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by fertility rate|lowest in the world]]. Its [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by population density|population density]] stands at 259 inhabitants per square kilometre. The overall [[List of countries by life expectancy|life expectancy]] at birth is 78.5 years; 75.8 years for males and 81.4 years for females. The country is the [[Balkans#Demographics|8th most populous country]] in the [[Balkans]] and ranks as the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|137th most populous country]] in the world. Nonetheless, the country's population rose steadily from 2,5 million in 1979 until 1989, when it peaked at 3.1 million. It is forecasted that the population will continue shrinking for the next decade at least, depending on the actual [[birth rate]] and the level of [[Net migration rate|net migration]]. The explanation for the recent population decrease is the [[fall of communism in Albania]] in the late twentieth century. That period was marked by economic [[mass migration|mass emigration]] from Albania to [[Greece]], Italy and the United States. Four decades of total [[Communism in Albania|isolation]] from the world, combined with its disastrous economic, social and political situation, had caused this exodus. The [[Human migration|external migration]] was prohibited outright during the communist era, while [[Human migration|internal migration]] was quite limited, hence this was a new phenomenon. At least, 900,000 people left Albania during this period, with about 600,000 of them settling in Greece. The migration affected the country's internal population distribution. It decreased particularly in the north and south, while it increased in the center within the cities of [[Tirana]] and [[Durrës]]. About 53.4% of the country's [[Demographics of Albania|population]] lives in cities. The three largest counties by population account for half of the total population. Almost 30% of the total population is found in [[Tirana County]] followed by [[Fier County]] with 11% and [[Durrës County]] with 10%. Over 1 million people are concentrated in [[Tirana]] and [[Durrës]], making it the largest urban area in Albania. [[Tirana]] is one of largest cities in the [[Balkan Peninsula]] and ranks seventh with a population about 800,000. The second largest city in the country by population is [[Durrës]], with a population of 201,110, followed by [[Vlorë]] with a population of 141,513.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demography", "Minorities"], "text": "Issues of ethnicity are a delicate topic and subject to debate. Contrary to official statistics that show an over 97 per cent Albanian majority in the country, minority groups (such as [[Greeks in Albania|Greeks]], [[Macedonians in Albania|Macedonians]], [[Montenegrins of Albania|Montenegrins]], [[Roma in Albania|Roma]] and [[Aromanians in Albania|Aromanians]]) have frequently disputed the official numbers, asserting a higher percentage of the country's population. According to the disputed 2011 census, ethnic affiliation was as follows: [[Albanians]] 2,312,356 (82.6% of the total), [[Greeks in Albania|Greeks]] 24,243 (0.9%), [[Macedonians of Albania|Macedonians]] 5,512 (0.2%), [[Montenegrins of Albania|Montenegrins]] 366 (0.01%), [[Aromanians]] 8,266 (0.30%), [[Romani people|Romani]] 8,301 (0.3%), [[Balkan Egyptians]] 3,368 (0.1%), other ethnicities 2,644 (0.1%), no declared ethnicity 390,938 (14.0%), and not relevant 44,144 (1.6%). On the quality of the specific data the Advisory Committee on the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]] stated that \"the results of the census should be viewed with the utmost caution and calls on the authorities not to rely exclusively on the data on nationality collected during the census in determining its policy on the protection of national minorities.\". Albania recognises nine national or cultural minorities: [[Aromanians|Aromanian]], [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonian]], [[Montenegrins|Montenegrin]], [[Serbs|Serb]], [[Romani people|Roma]], [[Egyptians (Balkans)|Egyptian]], Bosnian and [[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] peoples. Other Albanian minorities are the [[Gorani people]] and Jews. Regarding the Greeks, \"it is difficult to know how many Greeks there are in Albania\". The estimates vary between 60,000 and 300,000 ethnic Greeks in Albania. According to Ian Jeffries, most of Western sources put the number at around 200,000. The 300,000 mark is supported by Greek government as well.<ref name=\"RFE/RL Research Report: Weekly Analyses from the RFE/RL Research Institute\"></ref> The [[CIA World Factbook]] estimates the Greek minority to constitute 0.9% of the total population. The US State Department estimates that Greeks make up 1.17%, and other minorities 0.23%, of the population. The latter questions the validity of the census data about the Greek minority, due to the fact that measurements have been affected by boycott. Macedonians and some Greek minority groups have sharply criticised Article 20 of the Census law, according to which a $1,000 fine will be imposed on anyone who will declare an ethnicity other than what is stated on his or her birth certificate. This is claimed to be an attempt to intimidate minorities into declaring Albanian ethnicity; according to them the Albanian government has stated that it will jail anyone who does not participate in the census or refuse to declare his or her ethnicity. Genc Pollo, the minister in charge has declared that: \"Albanian citizens will be able to freely express their ethnic and religious affiliation and mother tongue. However, they are not forced to answer these sensitive questions\". The amendments criticized do not include jailing or forced declaration of ethnicity or religion; only a fine is envisioned which can be overthrown by court.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demography", "Minorities"], "text": "Greek representatives form part of the Albanian parliament and the government has invited Albanian Greeks to register, as the only way to improve their status. On the other hand, nationalists, various organisations and political parties in Albania have expressed their concern that the census might artificially increase the numbers of the Greek minority, which might be then exploited by Greece to threaten Albania's territorial integrity.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demography", "Language"], "text": "The [[official language]] of the country is [[Albanian language|Albanian]] which is spoken by the vast majority of the country's population. Its standard spoken and written form is revised and merged from the two main dialects, [[Gheg]] and [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]], though it is notably based more on the Tosk dialect. The [[Shkumbin]] river is the rough dividing line between the two dialects. Also a [[Greeks in Albania#Language|dialect of Greek]] that preserves features now lost in standard [[modern Greek]] is spoken in areas inhabited by the [[Greek minority in Albania|Greek minority]]. Other languages spoken by ethnic minorities in Albania include [[Aromanian language|Aromanian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]], [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Gora dialect|Gorani]], and [[Romani language|Roma]]. Macedonian is official in the Pustec Municipality in East Albania. According to the 2011 population census, 2,765,610 or 98.767% of the population declared [[Albanian language|Albanian]] as their mother tongue (''mother tongue is defined as the first or main language spoken at home during childhood''). In recent years, the shrinking number of pupils in schools dedicated to the Greek minority has caused problems for teachers. The Greek language is spoken by an important percentage in the southern part of the country, due to cultural and economic links with adjacent Greece. In a 2017 study carried out by Instat, the Albanian government statistical agency, 39.9% of the 25–64 years old is able to use at least one foreign language, with English first at 40.0%, followed by Italian with 27.8% and Greek with 22.9%. Among young people aged 25 or less, English, German and Turkish have seen rising interest after 2000. Italian and French have had a stable interest, while Greek has lost much of its previous interest. The trends are linked with cultural and economic factors. [[Greek language|Greek]] is the second most-spoken language in the country, with 0.5 to 3% of the population speaking it as first language, and with two-thirds of mainly Albanian families having at least one member that speaks Greek, most having learned it in the post communist era (1992–present) due to private schools or migration to Greece. Outside of the small designated \"minority area\" in the south the teaching of Greek was banned during the communist era. As of 2003 Greek was offered at over 100 private tutoring centers all over Albania and at a private school in Tirana, the first of its kind outside Greece. Young people have shown a growing interest in German language in recent years. Some of them go to Germany for studying or various experiences. Albania and Germany have agreements for cooperating in helping young people of the two countries know both cultures better. Due to a sharp rise in economic relations with Turkey, interest in learning Turkish, in particular among young people, has been growing on a yearly basis. Young people, attracted by economic importance of Turkish investments and common values between the two nations, gain from cultural and academic collaboration of universities.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demography", "Religion"], "text": "Albania is a [[secular state|secular]] and religiously diverse country with no [[official religion]] and thus, [[freedom of religion]], [[freedom of belief|belief]] and [[Freedom of conscience|conscience]] are guaranteed under the country's [[Constitution of Albania|constitution]]. Culturally, [[religious tolerance]] is one of the most considerable values of the tradition of the [[Albanians]]. It is widely accepted that they generally value a peaceful coexistence among the believers of different religious communities in the country. [[Pope Francis]] hailed Albania during his [[official visit]] in [[Tirana]] as model of religious harmony, due to the long tradition of religious coexistence and tolerance. During [[Classical antiquity|classical time]], there are thought to have been about seventy Christian families in [[Durrës]], as early as the time of the [[Apostle]]. The [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Tiranë-Durrës|Archbishopric of Durrës]] was purportedly founded by [[Paul the Apostle]], while preaching in [[Illyria]] and [[Ancient epirus|Epirus]]. Meanwhile, in [[Middle Ages|medieval times]], the [[Albanian people]] first appeared within historical records from the [[Byzantine]]. At this point, they were mostly [[Christianised]]. [[Islam]] arrived for the first time in the late 9th century to the region, when [[Arabs]] raided parts of the eastern banks of the [[Adriatic Sea]]. It later emerged as the majority religion, during centuries of [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]], though a significant Christian minority remained. During [[Modern history|modern times]], the Albanian republican, monarchic and later communist regimes followed a systematic policy of separating religion from official functions and cultural life. The country has never had an [[official religion]] either as a republic or as a kingdom. In the 20th century, the clergy of all faiths was weakened under the monarchy and ultimately eradicated during the 1950s and 1960s, under the state policy of obliterating all organised religion from the territories of Albania. The [[Communism in Albania|communist regime]] persecuted and suppressed religious observance and institutions and entirely [[anti-religious|banned religion]]. The country was then officially declared to be the world's first [[atheist state]]. Religious freedom has returned, however, since the [[Fall of communism in Albania|end of communism]]. Islam survived communist era persecution and reemerged in the modern era as a practised religion in Albania. Some smaller Christian sects in Albania include [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] and several [[Protestant]] communities including [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]], [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. The first recorded Protestant of Albania was Said Toptani, who travelled around Europe and returned to [[Tirana]] in 1853, where he preached [[Protestantism]]. Due to that, he was arrested and imprisoned by the Ottoman authorities in 1864. The first [[evangelical Protestants]] appeared in the 19th century and the Evangelical Alliance was founded in 1892. Nowadays, it has 160 member congregations from different Protestant denominations. Following mass emigration to Israel after the fall of communism, there are only 200 Albanian [[Judaism in Albania|Jews]] left in the country.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demography", "Religion"], "text": "As of the [[2011 Census of Albania|2011 census]], there were 1,587,608 (56.7%) [[Islam|Sunni Muslims]], 280,921 (10.03%) [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholics]], 188,992 (6.75%) [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox]], 58,628 (2.09%) [[Bektashi Order|Bektashi Muslims]], 3,797 (0.14%) [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]], 1,919 (0.07%) other [[Christians]], 602 (0.02%) of other religions and 153,630 (5.49%) believers without denomination. 69,995 people (2.5%) were [[Atheism|irreligious]] while 386,024 (13.79%) did not declare their religion. The country is ranked among the least religious countries in the world. Religion plays an important role in the lives of only 39% of its population. In another report, 56% considered themselves religious, 30% considered themselves non-religious, while 9% defined themselves as convinced atheists. 80% believed in God and 40% believed in life after death. However, 40% believed in hell, while 42% believed in heaven. The preliminary results of the 2011 census seemed to give widely different results, with 70% of respondents refusing to declare belief in any of the listed faiths. The Albanian Orthodox Church officially refused to recognize the results, claiming that 24% of the total population adhered to its faith. Some Muslim Community officials expressed unhappiness with the data claiming that many Muslims were not counted and that the number of adherents numbered some 70% of the Albanian population. The Albanian Catholic Bishops Conference also cast doubts on the census, complaining that many of its believers were not contacted. The [[Islam in Albania|Muslim Albanians]] are spread throughout the country. [[Orthodoxy in Albania|Orthodox]] and [[Bektashi]] are mostly found in the south, whereas [[Catholicism in Albania|Catholic]] mainly live in the north. In 2008, there were 694 [[Catholic]] churches and 425 [[Eastern Orthodox Church|orthodox]] churches, 568 mosques and 70 [[Bektashi Order|bektashi]] [[Khanqah|tekke]] in the country.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Symbols"], "text": "Albania shares many symbols associated with its history, culture and belief. These include the colours red and black, animals such as the [[golden eagle]] living across the country, costumes such as the [[fustanella]], [[Qeleshe|plis]] and [[opinga]] which are worn to special events and celebrations, plants such as the [[olive]] and [[Papaver rhoeas|red poppy]] growing as well across the country. The [[flag of Albania]] is a red flag with a black [[double-headed eagle]] positioned in the centre. The red colour used in the flag symbolises the bravery, strength and valour of the [[Albanian people]], while the black colour appears as a symbol of freedom and heroism. The eagle has been used by Albanians since the [[Middle Ages]] including the establishment of the [[Principality of Arbër]] and by numerous noble ruling families such as the [[Kastrioti family|Kastrioti]], [[Muzaka family|Muzaka]], [[Thopia family|Thopia]] and [[Dukagjini family|Dukagjini]]. [[Gjergj Kastrioti Skënderbeu]], who fought and began a rebellion against the [[Ottoman Empire]] which halted Ottoman advance into Europe for nearly 25 years, placed the double-headed eagle on his flag and seal. The country's national motto, ''[[Ti Shqipëri, më jep nder, më jep emrin Shqipëtar]]'' (\"You Albania, you give me honour, you give me the name Albanian\"), finds its origins in the [[Albanian National Awakening]]. The first to express this motto was [[Naim Frashëri]] in his poem ''Ti Shqipëri më jep nder''.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Arts"], "text": "The [[Albanian art|artistic history]] of Albania has been particularly influenced by a multitude of ancient and medieval [[Civilisation|people]], traditions and religions. It covers a broad spectrum with mediums and disciplines that include painting, [[pottery]], sculpture, [[ceramic]] and architecture all of them exemplifying a great variety in style and shape, in different regions and period. The rise of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] and [[Ottoman Empire]] in the [[Middle Ages]] was accompanied by a corresponding growth in [[Christian art|Christian]] and [[Islamic art]] in the lands of Albania which are apparent in examples of architecture and mosaics throughout the country. Centuries later, the [[Albanian Renaissance]] proved crucial to the emancipation of the modern Albanian culture and saw unprecedented developments in all fields of literature and art whereas artists sought to return to the ideals of [[Impressionism]] and [[Romanticism (art)|Romanticism]]. However, [[Onufri]], [[Kolë Idromeno]], [[David Selenica]], [[Kostandin Shpataraku]] and the [[Zografi Brothers]] are the most eminent representatives of Albanian art. The [[architecture of Albania]] reflects the legacy of various civilisations tracing back to the [[classical antiquity]]. Major cities in Albania have evolved from within the castle to include dwellings, religious and commercial structures, with constant redesigning of town squares and evolution of building techniques. Nowadays, the cities and towns reflect a whole spectrum of various [[architectural style]]. In the 20th century, many historical as well as [[Sacred architecture|sacred]] buildings bearing the ancient influence were demolished during the [[Communism in Albania|communist era]]. [[Ancient architecture]] is found throughout Albania and most visible in [[Byllis]], [[Amantia]], [[Phoenice]], [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]], [[Butrint]], [[Antigonia (Chaonia)|Antigonia]], [[Rozafa Castle|Shkodër]] and [[Durrës Amphitheatre|Durrës]]. Considering the long period of rule of the [[Byzantine Empire]], they introduced castles, citadels, churches and monasteries with spectacular wealth of visible [[mural]] and [[fresco]]. Perhaps the best known examples can be found in the southern Albanian cities and surroundings of [[Korçë]], [[Berat]], [[Voskopojë]] and [[Gjirokastër]]. Involving the introduction of [[Ottoman architecture]] there was a development of mosques and other Islamic buildings, particularly seen in Berat and Gjirokastër. A productive period of [[Historicism (art)|Historicism]], [[Art Nouveau]] and [[Neoclassicism]] merged into the 19th century, best exemplified in [[Korçë]]. The 20th century brought new architectural styles such as the modern [[Italianate architecture|Italian style]], which is present in [[Tirana]] such as the [[Skanderbeg Square]] and Ministries. It is also present in Shkodër, [[Vlorë]], [[Sarandë]] and [[Durrës]]. Moreover, other towns received their present-day Albania-unique appearance through various cultural or economic influences. [[Socialist classicism]] arrived during the [[Peoples Republic of Albania|communist era]] in Albania after the [[Second World War]]. At this period many socialist-styled complexes, wide roads and factories were constructed, while town squares were redesigned and numerous of historic and important buildings demolished. Notable examples of that style include the [[Mother Teresa Square (Tirana)|Mother Teresa Square]], [[Pyramid of Tirana]], [[Palace of Congresses]] and so on.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Arts"], "text": "Three Albanian archaeological sites are included in the list of [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. These include the ancient remains of Butrint, the medieval [[Historic Centres of Berat and Gjirokastër]], and [[Ohrid Lake|Natural and Cultural Heritage of the Ohrid region]] site shared with [[North Macedonia]] since 2019. Furthermore, the royal [[Royal Tombs of Selca e Poshtme|Illyrian tombs]], the remains of [[Apollonia (Illyria)|Apollonia]], the ancient [[Durrës Amphitheatre|Amphitheatre]] of Durrës and the [[Fortress of Bashtovë]] has been included on the tentative list of Albania.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Cuisine"], "text": "Throughout the centuries, [[Albanian cuisine]] has been widely influenced by [[Albanian culture]], [[Geography of Albania|geography]] and [[History of Albania|history]], and as such, different parts of the country enjoy specific [[regional cuisine]]. Cooking traditions especially vary between the north and the south, owing to differing [[topography]] and [[climate]] that essentially contribute to the excellent growth conditions for a wide array of herbs, fruits, and vegetables. Albanians produce and use many varieties of fruits such as [[Lemon (fruit)|lemon]], oranges, [[Figs (fruit)|fig]], and most notably, [[Olive (fruit)|olive]], which are perhaps the most important element of Albanian cooking. Spices and other herbs such as [[Basil (herb)|basil]], [[lavender]], [[Spearmint|mint]], [[oregano]], [[rosemary]], and [[thyme]] are widely used, as are vegetables such as garlic, onions, [[Bell pepper|pepper]], potatoes, tomatoes, as well as [[legume]] of all types. With a coastline along the [[Albanian Adriatic Sea Coast|Adriatic]] and [[Albanian Ionian Sea Coast|Ionian]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], fish, [[crustacean]], and seafood are a popular and an integral part of the Albanian diet. Otherwise, [[Lamb (food)|lamb]] is the traditional meat for different holidays and [[religious festival]] for both [[Christianity in Albania|Christians]] and [[Islam in Albania|Muslim]], although poultry, beef, and pork are also in plentiful supply. [[Tavë kosi]] (\"[[soured milk]] [[casserole]]\") is the [[national dish]] of Albania, consisting of lamb and rice baked under a thick, tart veil of [[yogurt]]. Fërgesë is another national dish, made up of peppers, tomatoes, and [[cottage cheese]]. Pite is also popular, a baked pastry with a filling of a mixture of [[spinach]] and gjizë (curd) or mish ([[ground meat]]). Petulla, a traditional fried dough, is also a popular speciality, and is served with [[powdered sugar]] or [[feta cheese]] and different sorts of [[Fruit preserves|fruit jam]]. [[Flia]] consists of multiple [[crêpe]]-like layers brushed with cream and served with sour cream. [[Krofne]], similar to [[Berliner (doughnut)|Berliner doughnuts]], are filled with jam, or chocolate and often eaten during cold winter months. Coffee is an integral part of the Albanian lifestyle. The country has more coffee houses per capita than any other country in the world. Tea is also enjoyed both at home or outside at cafés, bars, or restaurants. Çaj Mali ([[Sideritis]] tea) is enormously beloved, and a part of the daily routine for most Albanians. It is cultivated across Southern Albania and noted for its medicinal properties. [[Black tea]] with a slice of lemon and sugar, milk, or honey is also popular. [[Albanian wine]] is also common throughout the country, and has been cultivated for thousands of years. Albania has a long and ancient history of wine production, and belongs to the [[Old World wine|Old World of wine producing countries]]. Its wine is characterized by its sweet taste and traditionally indigenous varieties.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Media"], "text": "The [[freedom of press]] and [[Freedom of speech|speech]], and the right to free expression is guaranteed in the [[constitution of Albania]]. Albania was ranked 84th on the [[Press Freedom Index]] of 2020 compiled by the [[Reporters Without Borders]], with its score steadily declining since 2003. Nevertheless, in the 2020 report of [[Freedom in the World]], the [[Freedom House]] classified the freedoms of press and speech in Albania as partly free from political interference and manipulation. [[Radio Televizioni Shqiptar]] (RTSH) is the [[national broadcaster]] corporation of Albania operating numerous television and radio stations in the country. The three major private broadcaster corporations are [[Top Channel]], [[TV Klan|Televizioni Klan]] and [[Vizion Plus]] whose content are distributed throughout Albania and beyond its territory in [[Kosovo]] and other [[Albanian language|Albanian-speaking]] territories. Albanian cinema has its roots in the 20th century and developed after the country's [[Albanian Declaration of Independence|declaration of independence]]. The first [[movie theater]] exclusively devoted to showing [[motion pictures]] was built in 1912 in [[Shkodër]] by an Austrian distribution company with strong efforts by Albanian painter [[Kolë Idromeno]]. The opening of other movie theaters followed by 1920 in Shkodër, [[Berat]], Tirana and [[Vlorë]]. During the [[Peoples Republic of Albania]], Albanian cinema developed rapidly with the inauguration of the [[Kinostudio Shqipëria e Re]] in Tirana. In 1953, the Albanian-Soviet [[epic film]], the [[The Great Warrior Skanderbeg|Great Warrior Skanderbeg]], was released chronicling the life and fight of the medieval Albanian hero [[Gjergj Kastriot Skanderbeg|Skanderbeg]]. It went on to win the international prize at the [[1954 Cannes Film Festival]]. In 2003, the [[Tirana International Film Festival]] was established, the largest film festival in the country. [[Durrës]] is host to the [[Durrës International Film Festival]], the second largest film festival, taking place at the [[Durrës Amphitheatre]].", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Music"], "text": "Albanian folk music is a prominent part of the national identity, and continues to play a major part in overall [[Music of Albania|Albanian music]]. Folk music can be divided into two stylistic groups, mainly the northern [[Gheg Albanian|Gheg]] varieties, and southern [[Labëria|Lab]] and [[Tosk Albanian|Tosk]] varieties. Northern and southern traditions are contrasted by a rugged tone from the north, and the more relaxed southern form of music. Many songs concern events from [[History of Albania|Albanian history]] and [[Culture of Albania|culture]], including traditional themes of honour, hospitality, treachery, and revenge. The first compilation of Albanian folk music was made by two [[Himara|Himariot]] musicians, [[Neço Muko|Neço Muka]] and Koço Çakali, in Paris, during their work with Albanian soprano [[Tefta Tashko-Koço]]. Several [[Phonograph record|gramophone]] compilations were recorded at the time by the three artists, which eventually led to the recognition of [[Albanian iso-polyphony]] as a [[UNESCO]] [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|Intangible Cultural Heritage]]. [[Festivali i Këngës]] is a traditional Albanian song contest organised by the national broadcaster [[Radio Televizioni Shqiptar]] (RTSH). The festival is celebrated annually since its inauguration in 1962 and has launched the careers of some of Albania's most successful singers including [[Vaçe Zela]] and [[Parashqevi Simaku]]. It is significantly a music competition among Albanian performers presenting unreleased songs in premiere, composed by Albanian authors and voted by juries or by public. Contemporary artists [[Rita Ora]], [[Bebe Rexha]], [[Era Istrefi]], [[Dua Lipa]], [[Ava Max]], [[Bleona]], [[Elvana Gjata]], [[Ermonela Jaho]], and [[Inva Mula]] have achieved international recognition for their music, while soprano [[Ermonela Jaho]] has been described by some as the \"world's most acclaimed soprano\". Albanian opera singer [[Saimir Pirgu]] was nominated for the 2017 [[Grammy Award]].", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Traditional clothing"], "text": "Every cultural and geographical region of Albania has its own specific variety of costume that vary in style, material, color, shape, detail, and form. Presently, [[National costume of Albania|national costume]] are most often worn during special events and celebrations, mostly at ethnic festivals, religious holidays, weddings, and by performing dance groups. Some elderly people continue to wear traditional clothing in their daily lives. Clothing was traditionally made mainly from local materials such as leather, wool, linen, hemp fibre, and silk; Albanian textiles are still embroidered in elaborate ancient patterns.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Literature"], "text": "The [[Albanian language]] comprises an independent branch and is a [[language isolate]] within the [[Indo-European language|Indo-European]] family of languages; it is not connected to any other known living language in Europe. Its origin is conclusively unknown, but it is believed to have descended from an ancient [[Paleo-Balkan languages|Paleo-Balkan language]]. The cultural renaissance was first of all expressed through the development of the [[Albanian language]] in the area of church texts and publications, mainly of the Catholic region in the northern of Albania, but also of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] in the south. The Protestant reforms invigorated hopes for the development of the local language and literary tradition, when cleric [[Gjon Buzuku]] brought into the Albanian language the [[Catholic liturgy]], trying to do for the Albanian language, what [[Martin Luther]] did for the German language. [[Meshari]] (''The Missal'') written by [[Gjon Buzuku]] was published in 1555 and is considered as one of the first literary work of written Albanian during the Middle Ages. The refined level of the language and the stabilised orthography must be the result of an earlier tradition of written Albanian, a tradition that is not well understood. However, there is some fragmented evidence, pre-dating Buzuku, which indicates that Albanian was written from at least the 14th century. The earliest evidence dates from 1332 AD with a Latin report from the French Dominican Guillelmus Adae, [[Archbishop]] of [[Antivari]], who wrote that Albanians used Latin letters in their books although their language was quite different from Latin. Other significant examples include: a [[Formula e pagëzimit|baptism formula]] (''Unte paghesont premenit Atit et Birit et spertit senit'') from 1462, written in Albanian within a Latin text by the Bishop of [[Durrës]], [[Pal Engjëlli]]; a glossary of Albanian words of 1497 by Arnold von Harff, a German who had travelled through Albania, and a 15th-century fragment of the Bible from the [[Gospel of Matthew]], also in Albanian, but written in Greek letters. Albanian writings from these centuries must not have been religious texts only, but historical chronicles too. They are mentioned by the humanist [[Marin Barleti]], who in his book [[Siege of Shkodra (1478)#The Book|Siege of Shkodër]] (''Rrethimi i Shkodrës'') from 1504, confirms that he leafed through such chronicles written in the language of the people (''in vernacula lingua'') as well as his famous biography of [[Skanderbeg]] [[Marin Barleti|Historia de vita et gestis Scanderbegi Epirotarum principis]] (''History of Skanderbeg'') from 1508. The ''History of Skanderbeg'' is still the foundation of Skanderbeg studies and is considered an Albanian cultural treasure, vital to the formation of Albanian national self-consciousness.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Literature"], "text": "During the 16th and the 17th centuries, the [[catechism]] (''E mbësuame krishterë'') (Christian Teachings) from 1592 written by [[Lekë Matrënga]], (''Doktrina e krishterë'') (The Christian Doctrine) from 1618 and (''Rituale romanum'') 1621 by [[Pjetër Budi]], the first writer of original Albanian [[prose]] and poetry, an [[Remorse|apology]] for George Castriot (1636) by [[Frang Bardhi]], who also published a dictionary and [[folklore]] creations, the theological-philosophical treaty ''[[Cuneus Prophetarum]]'' (The Band of Prophets) (1685) by [[Pjetër Bogdani]], the most universal personality of Albanian [[Middle Ages]], were published in [[Albanian language|Albanian]]. The most famous Albanian writer in the 20th and 21st century is probably [[Ismail Kadare]]. He has been mentioned as a possible recipient of the Nobel Prize in Literature several times.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Sports"], "text": "Albania participated at the [[1972 Summer Olympics|Olympic Games in 1972]] for the first time. The country made their Winter Olympic Games debut in [[Winter Olympics 2006|2006]]. Albania missed the next four games, two of them due to the 1980 and 1984 boycotts, but returned for the 1992 games in [[1992 Olympic Winter Games|Barcelona]]. Since then, Albania have participated in all games. Albania normally competes in events that include swimming, athletics, weightlifting, shooting and wrestling. The country have been represented by the [[National Olympic Committee of Albania]] since 1972. The nation has participated at the [[Mediterranean Games]] since the games of [[1987 Mediterranean Games|1987]] in Syria. The Albanian athletes have won a total of 43 (8 gold, 17 silver and 18 bronze) medals from [[1987 Mediterranean Games|1987]] to [[2013 Mediterranean Games|2013]]. Popular sports in Albania include [[Football in Albania|Football]], weightlifting, [[Albania national basketball team|basketball]], volleyball, tennis, swimming, [[rugby union]] and gymnastics. Football is by far the most popular sport in Albania. It is governed by the [[Football Association of Albania]] (, F.SH.F.), which was created in 1930 and has membership in [[FIFA]] and [[UEFA]]. Football arrived in Albania early in the 20th century when the inhabitants of the northern city of [[Shkodër]] were surprised to see a strange game being played by students at a Christian mission. The [[Albania national football team]], ranking 51st in the [[FIFA World Rankings|World]] in 2017 (highest 22nd on 22 August 2015) have won the [[1946 Balkan Cup]] and the [[Rothmans International Tournament 2000|Malta Rothmans International Tournament 2000]], but had never participated in any major [[UEFA]] or [[FIFA]] tournament, until [[UEFA Euro 2016]], Albania's first ever appearance at the continental tournament and at a major men's football tournament. Albania scored their first ever goal in a major tournament and secured their first ever win in European Championship when they beat [[Romania national football team|Romania]] by 1–0 in a [[UEFA Euro 2016]] match on 19 June 2016. The most successful football clubs in the country are [[KF Skënderbeu Korçë|Skënderbeu]], [[KF Tirana]], [[FK Dinamo Tirana|Dinamo Tirana]], [[FK Partizani Tirana|Partizani]] and [[KF Vllaznia Shkodër|Vllaznia]]. Weightlifting is one of the most successful individual sport for the Albanians, with the national team winning medals at the [[European Weightlifting Championships]] and the rest international competitions. Albanian weightlifters have won a total of 16 medals at the [[European Weightlifting Championships|European Championships]] with 1 of them being gold, 7 silver and 8 bronze. In the [[World Weightlifting Championships]], the Albanian weightlifting team has won in [[1972 World Weightlifting Championships|1972]] a gold in [[2002 World Weightlifting Championships|2002]] a silver and in [[2011 World Weightlifting Championships|2011]] a bronze medal.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Diaspora"], "text": "Historically, the Albanian people have established several communities in many regions throughout Southern Europe. The [[Albanian diaspora]] has been formed since the late [[Middle Ages]], when they emigrated to places such as Italy, especially in [[Sicily]] and [[Calabria]], and [[Greece]] to escape either various socio-political difficulties or the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman conquest]] of Albania. Following the [[Fall of communism in Albania|fall of communism]], large numbers of Albanians have migrated to countries such as Australia, Canada, France, Germany, [[Greece]], Italy, [[Scandinavia]], [[Switzerland]], United Kingdom and the United States. Albanian [[Minority group|minorities]] are present in the neighbouring territories such as the west of [[North Macedonia]], the east of [[Montenegro]], [[Kosovo]] in its entirety and southern [[Serbia]]. In [[Kosovo]], Albanians make up the largest ethnic group in the country. Altogether, the number of ethnic Albanian living abroad its territory is estimated to be higher than the total population inside the territory of Albania.", "id": "738", "title": "Albania", "categories": ["Albania", "Albanian-speaking countries and territories", "Southern European countries", "Southeastern European countries", "Balkan countries", "Member states of NATO", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the Union for the Mediterranean", "Member states of the United Nations", "Republics", "States and territories established in 1912", "Countries in Europe"], "seealso": ["Outline of Albania", "Bibliography of Albania", "Index of Albania-related articles"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Allah''' (; , ) is the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word for [[God in Abrahamic religions]]. In the English language, the word generally refers to [[God in Islam]]. The word is thought to be derived by [[Contraction (grammar)|contraction]] from ''[[Arabic definite article|al]]-[[Ilah|ilāh]]'', which means \"the god\", and is linguistically related to ''[[El (deity)|El]]'' (''[[Elohim]]'') and ''[[Names of God in Judaism#Elah|Elah]]'', the [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] words for God. The word ''Allah'' has been used by [[Arabs|Arabic people]] of different religions since [[pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic]] times. More specifically, it has been used as a term for God by [[Muslim]] (both [[Arab Muslims|Arab]] and non-Arab), and [[Arab Christians]]. It is also often, albeit not exclusively, used in this way by [[Bábism|Bábists]], [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]], [[Mandaeans]], [[Christianity in Indonesia|Indonesian]] and [[Christianity in Malta|Maltese]] Christians, and [[Sephardi Jews]]. Similar usage by Christians and [[Sikhs]] in [[West Malaysia]] has recently led to political and legal controversies.", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "The [[etymology]] of the word ''Allāh'' has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists. Grammarians of the [[Hasan of Basra|Basra school]] regarded it as either formed \"spontaneously\" (''murtajal'') or as the definite form of ''lāh'' (from the verbal root ''lyh'' with the meaning of \"lofty\" or \"hidden\"). Others held that it was borrowed from Syriac or Hebrew, but most considered it to be derived from a [[Synalepha|contraction]] of the Arabic definite article ''[[al-]]'' \"the\" and '''' \"[[deity]], god\" to '''' meaning ''\"the deity\"'', or ''\"the God\"''. The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the latter theory, and view the loanword hypothesis with skepticism. [[Cognates]] of the name \"Allāh\" exist in other [[Semitic languages]], including [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]]. The corresponding [[Aramaic]] form is ''Elah'' (), but its emphatic state is ''Elaha'' (). It is written as (''ʼĔlāhā'') in [[Biblical Aramaic]] and (''ʼAlâhâ'') in [[Syriac language|Syriac]] as used by the [[Assyrian Christians|Assyrian Church]], both meaning simply \"God\". [[Biblical Hebrew]] mostly uses the plural (but functional singular) form ''[[Elohim]]'' (), but more rarely it also uses the singular form ''Eloah'' ().", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["Usage", "Pre-Islamic Arabians"], "text": "Regional variants of the word ''Allah'' occur in both pagan and Christian pre-Islamic inscriptions. Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre-Islamic [[Polytheism|polytheistic cults]]. Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a [[creator god]] or a supreme deity of their [[Pantheon (religion)|pantheon]]. The term may have been vague in the [[Mecca|Meccan religion]]. According to one hypothesis, which goes back to [[Julius Wellhausen]], Allah (the supreme deity of the tribal federation around [[Quraysh]]) was a designation that consecrated the superiority of [[Hubal]] (the supreme deity of Quraysh) over the other gods. However, there is also evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities. According to that hypothesis, the [[Kaaba]] was first consecrated to a supreme deity named Allah and then hosted the pantheon of Quraysh after their conquest of [[Mecca]], about a century before the time of [[Muhammad]]. Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier, but nothing precise is known about this use. Some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities. There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult. No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed. Allah is the only god in Mecca that did not have an idol. Muhammad's father's name was [[Abd Allah ibn Abd al Muttalib|]] meaning \"the slave of Allāh\".", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["Usage", "Christianity"], "text": "[[Arabic language|Arabic]]-speakers of all Abrahamic faiths, including Christians and Jews, use the word \"Allah\" to mean \"God\". The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for \"God\" than \"Allah\". Similarly, the [[Aramaic]] word for \"God\" in the language of [[Assyrian Christians]] is ''ʼĔlāhā'', or ''Alaha''. (Even the Arabic-descended [[Maltese language]] of [[Malta]], whose population is almost entirely [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], uses ''Alla'' for \"God\".) Arab Christians, for example, use the terms '''' () for [[God the Father]], '''' () for [[Son of God|God the Son]], and '''' () for [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|God the Holy Spirit]]. (See [[God in Christianity]] for the Christian concept of God.) [[Arab Christians]] have used two forms of invocations that were [[affix]] to the beginning of their written works. They adopted the Muslim '''', and also created their own [[Trinity|Trinitized]] '''' as early as the 8th century. The Muslim '''' reads: \"In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.\" The Trinitized '''' reads: \"In the name of Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, One God.\" The [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]] invocations do not have the words \"One God\" at the end. This addition was made to emphasize the [[monotheism|monotheistic]] aspect of Trinitarian belief and also to make it more palatable to Muslims. According to [[Marshall Hodgson]], it seems that in the pre-Islamic times, some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the [[Kaaba]], a pagan temple at that time, honoring Allah there as God the Creator. Some archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient [[pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic]] inscriptions and tombs made by [[Arab Christians]] in the ruins of a church at [[Umm el-Jimal]] in Northern [[Jordan]], which initially, according to Enno Littman (1949), contained references to Allah as the proper name of God. However, on a second revision by Bellamy et al. (1985 & 1988) the 5-versed-inscription was re-translated as \"(1)This [inscription] was set up by colleagues of ʿUlayh, (2) son of ʿUbaydah, secretary (3) of the cohort Augusta Secunda (4) Philadelphiana; may he go mad who (5) effaces it.\" The syriac word ܐܠܗܐ (''ʼĔlāhā'') can be found in the reports and the lists of names of Christian martyrs in South Arabia, as reported by antique Syriac documents of the names of those martyrs from the era of the [[Himyarite]] and [[Aksumite]] kingdoms In [[Ibn Ishaq|Ibn Ishaq's]] biography there is a Christian leader named Abd Allah ibn Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad, who was martyred in Najran in 523, as he had worn a ring that said \"Allah is my lord\". In an inscription of Christian martyrion dated back to 512, references to 'l-ilah (الاله) can be found in both Arabic and Aramaic. The inscription starts with the statement \"By the Help of 'l-ilah\".", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["Usage", "Christianity"], "text": "In pre-Islamic Gospels, the name used for God was \"Allah\", as evidenced by some discovered Arabic versions of the [[New Testament]] written by [[Arab Christians]] during the pre-Islamic era in Northern and Southern [[Arabia]]. However most recent research in the field of Islamic Studies by Sydney Griffith et al. (2013), David D. Grafton (2014), Clair Wilde (2014) & ML Hjälm et al. (2016 & 2017) assert that \"all one can say about the possibility of a pre-Islamic, Christian version of the Gospel in Arabic is that no sure sign of its actual existence has yet emerged.\" Additionally ML Hjälm in her most recent research (2017) inserts that \"manuscripts containing translations of the gospels are encountered no earlier than the year 873\" [[Irfan Shahîd]] quoting the 10th-century encyclopedic collection [[Kitab al-Aghani]] notes that pre-Islamic Arab Christians have been reported to have raised the battle cry \"''Ya La Ibad Allah''\" (O slaves of Allah) to invoke each other into battle. According to Shahid, on the authority of 10th-century Muslim scholar [[Al-Marzubani]], \"Allah\" was also mentioned in pre-Islamic Christian poems by some [[Ghassanid]] and [[Tanukhids|Tanukhid]] poets in [[Syria]] and Northern [[Arabia]].", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["Usage", "Islam"], "text": "In Islam, ''Allah'' is the unique, omnipotent and only deity and [[Creator deity|creator of the universe]] and is equivalent to [[God in Abrahamic religions|God in other Abrahamic religions]]. ''Allah'' is usually seen as the personal name of God, a notion which became disputed in contemporary scholarship, including the question, whether or not the word ''Allah'' should be translated as ''God''. According to Islamic belief, Allah is the most common word to represent God, and humble submission to his will, divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith. \"He is the only God, creator of the universe, and the judge of humankind.\" \"He is unique ('''') and inherently one (''''), all-merciful and omnipotent.\" No human eyes can see Allah till the Day Of Judgement. The Qur'an declares \"the reality of Allah, His inaccessible mystery, His various names, and His actions on behalf of His creatures.\" Allah doesn't depend on anything. God is not a part of the Christian Trinity. God has no parents and no children. The concept correlates to the [[Tawhid]], where chapter 112 of the [[Quran|Qur'an]] ([[Al-Ikhlas|''Al-'Ikhlās'']], The Sincerity) reads: [[۝]] SAY, God is one GOD; ۝ the eternal GOD: ۝ He begetteth not, neither is He begotten: ۝ and there is not any one like unto Him.and in the [[Ayat ul-Kursi]] (\"Verse of the Throne\"), which is the 255th verse and the powerful verse in the longest chapter (the 2nd chapter) of the Qur'an, ''[[Al-Baqarah]]'' (''\"''The Cow\") states: \"Allah! There is no deity but ''Him'', the Alive, the Eternal. Neither slumber nor sleep overtaketh ''Him''. Unto ''Him'' belongeth whatsoever is in the heavens and whatsoever is in the earth. Who could intercede in ''His'' presence without ''His'' permission? ''He'' knoweth that which is in front of them and that which is behind them, while they encompass nothing of ''His'' knowledge except what ''He'' wills. ''His'' throne includeth the heavens and the earth, and ''He'' is never weary of preserving them. ''He'' is the Sublime, the Tremendous.\" In Islamic tradition, there are [[99 Names of God]] ('''' lit. meaning: 'the best names' or 'the most beautiful names'), each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of Allah. All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and all-comprehensive divine name. Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and most frequent of these names are \"the Merciful\" (''[[Rahman (name)|ar-Raḥmān]]'') and \"the Compassionate\" (''''), including the forementioned above ''al-Aḥad'' (\"the One, the Indivisible\") and ''al-Wāḥid'' (\"the Unique, the Single\"). Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase ''[[Insha'Allah|]]'' (meaning 'if God wills') after references to future events. Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of ''[[Basmala|]]'' (meaning 'In the name of God'). There are certain phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims, including \"[[subhan'allah|]]\" (Glory be to God), \"[[Alhamdulillah|]]\" (Praise be to God), \"[[Shahada|]]\" (There is no deity but God) or sometimes \"''lā ilāha illā inta/ huwa''\" (There is no deity but ''You''/ ''Him'') and \"[[Takbir|]]\" (God is the Most Great) as a devotional exercise of remembering God ([[dhikr]]).", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["Usage", "Islam"], "text": "In a [[Sufi]] practice known as ''dhikr Allah'' ([[Arabic]]: ذكر الله, lit. \"Remembrance of God\"), the Sufi repeats and contemplates the name ''Allah'' or other associated divine names to Him while controlling his or her breath. For example, in countless references in the context from the Qur'an forementioned above: 1) Allah is referred to in the second [[Personal pronoun|person pronoun]] in Arabic as \"''Inta'' ([[Arabic]]: َإِنْت)\" like the [[English language|English]] \"''You''\", or commonly in the third person pronoun \"''Huwa'' ([[Arabic]]: َهُو)\" like the English \"''He''\" and uniquely in the case pronoun of the [[Oblique case|oblique]] form \"''Hu/ Huw'' ([[Arabic]]: هو /-هُ)\" like the English \"''Him''\" which rhythmically resonates and is chanted as considered a sacred sound or echo referring Allah as the \"Absolute Breath or Soul of Life\" - ''Al-[[Nafs]] al-Hayyah'' ([[Arabic]]: النّفس الحياة, ''an-Nafsu 'l-Ḥayyah'') - notably among the 99 names of God, \"the Giver of Life\" (''[[Al Muhyi|al-Muḥyī]]'') and \"the Bringer of Death\" (''[[Al Mumit|al-Mumiyt]]''); 2) Allah is neither male or female (who has no gender), but who is the essence of the \"Omnipotent, Selfless, Absolute Soul (''an-[[Nafs]],'' النّفس) and Holy Spirit\" (''ar-[[Rūḥ]],'' الرّوح) - notably among the 99 names of God, \"the All-Holy, All-Pure and All-Sacred\" (''[[Al Quddus|al-Quddus]]''); 3) Allah is the originator of both before and beyond the cycle of creation, destruction and time, - notably among the 99 names of God, \"the First, Beginning-less\" (''[[Al Awwal|al-Awwal]]''), \"the End/ Beyond [\"the Final Abode\"]/ Endless\" (''[[Al Akhir|al-Akhir/ al-Ākhir]]'') and \"the Timeless\" (''[[Al Sabur|aṣ-Ṣabūr]]''). According to [[Gerhard Böwering]], in contrast with pre-Islamic Arabian [[polytheism]], God in Islam does not have associates and companions, nor is there any kinship between God and [[jinn]]. Pre-Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind, powerful, inexorable and insensible fate over which man had no control. This was replaced with the Islamic notion of a powerful but provident and merciful God. According to [[Francis Edward Peters]], \"The [[Quran|Qur’ān]] insists, Muslims believe, and historians affirm that [[Muhammad]] and his followers worship the same God as the Jews (). The Qur’an's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with [[Abraham]]\". Peters states that the Qur'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than [[Yahweh]], and as a universal deity, unlike Yahweh who closely follows [[Israel]].", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["Pronunciation"], "text": "The word ''Allāh'' is generally pronounced , exhibiting a heavy lām, , a [[velarized alveolar lateral approximant]], a marginal phoneme in [[Arabic phonology|Modern Standard Arabic]]. Since the initial alef has no [[hamza]], the initial is elided when a preceding word ends in a vowel. If the preceding vowel is , the lām is light, , as in, for instance, the [[Basmala]].", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["As a loanword", "English and other European languages"], "text": "The history of the name ''Allāh'' in English was probably influenced by the study of [[comparative religion]] in the 19th century; for example, [[Thomas Carlyle]] (1840) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything different from God. However, in his biography of Muḥammad (1934), [[Tor Andræ]] always used the term ''Allah'', though he allows that this \"conception of God\" seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies. Languages which may not commonly use the term ''Allah'' to denote God may still contain popular expressions which use the word. For example, because of the centuries long [[Al-Andalus|Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula]], the word ''ojalá'' in the Spanish language and ''oxalá'' in the [[Portuguese language]] exist today, borrowed from [[Arabic]] ''[[inshalla]]'' (Arabic: إن شاء الله). This phrase literally means 'if God wills' (in the sense of \"I hope so\"). The German poet [[Siegfried August Mahlmann|Mahlmann]] used the form \"Allah\" as the title of a poem about the ultimate deity, though it is unclear how much Islamic thought he intended to convey. Some Muslims leave the name \"Allāh\" untranslated in English, rather than using the English translation \"God\". The word has also been applied to certain living human beings as [[Anthropomorphism|personifications]] of the term and concept.", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["As a loanword", "Malaysian and Indonesian language"], "text": "Christians in Malaysia and Indonesia use ''Allah'' to refer to God in the [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] and [[Indonesian language]] (both of them standardized forms of the [[Malay language]]). Mainstream Bible translations in the language use ''Allah'' as the translation of Hebrew ''[[Elohim]]'' (translated in English Bibles as \"God\"). This goes back to early translation work by [[Francis Xavier]] in the 16th century. The first dictionary of Dutch-Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl, Justus Heurnius, and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 (revised edition from 1623 edition and 1631 Latin edition) recorded \"Allah\" as the translation of the Dutch word \"[[:en:God|Godt]]\". Ruyl also translated the [[Gospel of Matthew]] in 1612 into the Malay language (an early Bible translation into a non-European language, made a year after the publication of the [[King James Version]]), which was printed in the Netherlands in 1629. Then he translated the [[Gospel of Mark]], published in 1638. The [[government of Malaysia]] in 2007 outlawed usage of the term ''Allah'' in any other but Muslim contexts, but the [[High Court of Malaya|Malayan High Court]] in 2009 revoked the law, ruling it unconstitutional. While ''Allah'' had been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries, the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of ''Allah'' by the Roman Catholic newspaper [[The Herald (Malaysian Catholic Weekly)|''The Herald'']]. The government appealed the court ruling, and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the hearing of the appeal. In October 2013 the court ruled in favor of the government's ban. In early 2014 the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using the word to refer to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia. However, the use of ''Allah'' is not prohibited in the two Malaysian states of [[Sabah]] and [[Sarawak]]. The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long-established and local Alkitab ([[Bibles]]) have been widely distributed freely in East Malaysia without restrictions for years. Both states also do not have similar Islamic state laws as those in West Malaysia. In reaction to some media criticism, the Malaysian government has introduced a \"10-point solution\" to avoid confusion and misleading information. The 10-point solution is in line with the spirit of the [[18-point agreement|18]]- and [[20-point agreement]] of Sarawak and Sabah.", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["Typography"], "text": "The word '''' is always written without an [[aleph|]] to spell the '''' vowel. This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using '''' to spell ''''. However, in vocalized spelling, a small diacritic '''' is added on top of the ''[[shadda|]]'' to indicate the pronunciation. One exception may be in the pre-Islamic [[History of the Arabic alphabet#Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions|Zabad inscription]], where it ends with an ambiguous sign that may be a lone-standing ''h'' with a lengthened start, or may be a non-standard conjoined '''':- (-) : This reading would be '''' spelled phonetically with '''' for the ''''. (-) : This reading would be '''' = 'the god' (an older form, without contraction), by older spelling practice without '''' for ''''. Many Arabic type fonts feature special [[typographic ligature|ligatures]] for Allah.", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": ["Typography", "Unicode"], "text": "[[Unicode]] has a code point reserved for '''', = U+FDF2, in the [[Arabic Presentation Forms-A]] block, which exists solely for \"compatibility with some older, legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly\"; this is discouraged for new text. Instead, the word '''' should be represented by its individual Arabic letters, while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature. The calligraphic variant of the word used as the [[Coat of arms of Iran]] is encoded in Unicode, in the [[Miscellaneous Symbols]] range, at code point U+262B (☫).", "id": "740", "title": "Allah", "categories": ["Allah", "Names of God", "Islamic terminology", "Arabian deities", "Arabian gods", "Middle Eastern gods"], "seealso": ["Names of God", "Abdullah (name)", "Ismul Azam", "Allah as a lunar deity", "Emblem of Iran"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''''Algorithms''''' is a monthly [[peer-reviewed]] [[open-access]] [[scientific journal]] of [[mathematics]], covering design, analysis, and experiments on [[algorithm]]. The journal is published by [[MDPI]] and was established in 2008. The founding [[editor-in-chief]] was [[Kazuo Iwama (computer scientist)|Kazuo Iwama]] ([[Kyoto University]]). From May 2014 to September 2019, the editor-in-chief was Henning Fernau ([[Universität Trier]]). The current editor-in-chief is Frank Werner ([[Otto-von-Guericke-Universität Magdeburg]]).", "id": "742", "title": "Algorithms (journal)", "categories": ["Computer science journals", "Open access journals", "MDPI academic journals", "English-language journals", "Publications established in 2008", "Mathematics journals", "Monthly journals"], "seealso": ["ACM Transactions on Algorithms", "Journal of Algorithms", "Algorithmica"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Azerbaijan''' (, ; ), officially the '''Republic of Azerbaijan''', is a country located at the crossroads of [[Eastern Europe]] and [[Western Asia]]. It is a part of the [[Caucasus]] region, and is bounded by the [[Caspian Sea]] to the east, [[Russia]] to the north, [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] to the northwest, [[Armenia]] and [[Turkey]] to the west, and [[Iran]] to the south. The [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] proclaimed its independence from the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]] in 1918 and became the first secular democratic Muslim-majority state. In 1920, the country was incorporated into the [[Soviet Union]] as the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan SSR]]. The modern Republic of Azerbaijan proclaimed its independence on 30 August 1991, shortly before the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union]] in the same year. In September 1991, the Armenian majority of the disputed [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] region seceded to form the [[Republic of Artsakh]]. The region and [[Armenian-controlled territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh|seven surrounding districts]], internationally recognized as part of Azerbaijan pending a solution to the status of the Nagorno-Karabakh through negotiations facilitated by the [[OSCE]], became ''de facto'' independent with the end of the [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]] in 1994. Following the [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war]], the seven districts and parts of [[Nagorno-Karabakh]] were returned to Azerbaijani control. Azerbaijan is a [[Unitary state|unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]. It is one of six independent [[List of Turkic dynasties and countries#Current independent states|Turkic states]] and an active member of the [[Turkic Council]] and the [[International Organization of Turkic Culture|TÜRKSOY]] community. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 182 countries and holds membership in 38 international organizations, including the [[United Nations]], the [[Council of Europe]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], and the [[NATO]] [[Partnership for Peace|PfP]] program. It is one of the founding members of [[GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development|GUAM]], the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]], and the [[Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons|OPCW]]. Azerbaijan is also an observer state of the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]]. The vast majority, or around 97% of the country's population is [[Muslim]], and the [[Constitution of Azerbaijan|constitution]] does not declare an official religion and all major political forces in the country are [[secularism|secularist]]. Azerbaijan is a [[developing country]] and ranks 87th on the [[Human Development Index]]. It has a high rate of [[economic development]], [[literacy rate|literacy]], and a low rate of [[List of countries by unemployment rate|unemployment]]. However, the ruling party, the [[New Azerbaijan Party]], in power since 1993, has been accused of authoritarian leadership and the deterioration of the country's [[Human rights in Azerbaijan|human rights record]], including increasing restrictions on civil liberties, particularly on [[Media freedom in Azerbaijan|press freedom]] and political repression.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Etymology"], "text": "According to a modern etymology, the term ''Azerbaijan'' derives from that of ''[[Atropates]]'', a [[Persian people|Persian]] [[satrap]] under the [[Achaemenid Empire]], who was later reinstated as the satrap of [[Medes|Media]] under [[Alexander the Great]]. The original etymology of this name is thought to have its roots in the once-dominant [[Zoroastrianism]]. In the [[Avesta]]'s ''Frawardin [[Yasht]]'' (\"Hymn to the Guardian Angels\"), there is a mention of ''âterepâtahe ashaonô fravashîm ýazamaide'', which literally translates from [[Avestan]] as \"we worship the [[fravashi]] of the holy [[Atropatene]].\" The name \"Atropates\" itself is the Greek transliteration of an Old Iranian, probably [[Median language|Median]], compounded name with the meaning \"Protected by the (Holy) Fire\" or \"The Land of the (Holy) Fire\". The Greek name was mentioned by [[Diodorus Siculus]] and [[Strabo]]. Over the span of millennia, the name evolved to ([[Middle Persian]]), then to , , (New Persian) and present-day ''Azerbaijan''. The name ''Azerbaijan'' was first adopted for the area of the present-day Republic of Azerbaijan by the government of [[Musavat]] in 1918, after the [[Russian Revolution|collapse of the Russian Empire]], when the independent [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] was established. Until then, the designation had been used exclusively to identify the [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|adjacent region of contemporary northwestern Iran]], while the area of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was formerly referred to as ''[[Arran (Caucasus)|Arran]]'' and ''[[Shirvan]]''. On that basis Iran protested the newly adopted country name. During the Soviet rule, the country was also spelled in Latin from the [[Russian transliteration]] as ''Azerbaydzhan'' (). The country's name was also spelled in Cyrillic script from 1940 to 1991 as \"Азәрбајҹан\".", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Antiquity"], "text": "The earliest evidence of human settlement in the territory of Azerbaijan dates back to the late [[Stone Age]] and is related to the [[Guruchay culture]] of [[Azykh Cave]]. Early settlements included the [[Scythia]] during the 9th century BC. Following the Scythians, Iranian [[Medes]] came to dominate the area to the south of the [[Aras (river)|Aras river]]. The Medes forged a vast empire between 900 and 700 BC, which was integrated into the [[Achaemenid Empire]] around 550 BC. The area was conquered by the Achaemenids leading to the spread of [[Zoroastrianism]].", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "From the Sasanid period to the Safavid period"], "text": "The [[Sasanian Empire]] turned [[Caucasian Albania]] into a [[vassal state]] in 252, while King [[Urnayr]] officially adopted [[Christianity]] as the state religion in the 4th century. Despite Sassanid rule, [[Caucasian Albania|Albania]] remained an entity in the region until the 9th century, while fully subordinate to Sassanid Iran, and retained its monarchy. Despite being one of the chief vassals of the Sasanian emperor, the Albanian king had only a semblance of authority, and the Sasanian [[marzban]] (military governor) held most civil, religious, and military authority. In the first half of the 7th century, [[Caucasian Albania]], as a vassal of the Sasanians, came under nominal Muslim rule due to the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]]. The [[Umayyad Caliphate]] repulsed both the Sasanians and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] from [[Transcaucasia]] and turned [[Caucasian Albania]] into a vassal state after Christian resistance led by King [[Javanshir]], was suppressed in 667. The power vacuum left by the decline of the [[Abbasid Caliphate]] was filled by numerous local dynasties such as the [[Sallarid dynasty|Sallarids]], [[Sajid dynasty|Sajids]], and [[Shaddadids]]. At the beginning of the 11th century, the territory was gradually seized by the waves of [[Oghuz Turks]] from [[Central Asia]], who adopted a [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] ethnonym at the time. The first of these Turkic dynasties established was the [[Seljuk Empire]], who entered the area now known as Azerbaijan by 1067. The pre-Turkic population that lived on the territory of modern Azerbaijan spoke several [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and Caucasian languages, among them [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and an [[Iranian languages|Iranian language]], [[Old Azeri language|Old Azeri]], which was gradually replaced by a [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]], the early precursor of the [[Azerbaijani language]] of today. Some linguists have also stated that the [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tati dialects]] of [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Iranian Azerbaijan]] and the Republic of Azerbaijan, like those spoken by the [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats]], are descended from Old Azeri. Locally, the possessions of the subsequent Seljuk Empire were ruled by [[Eldiguzids]], technically vassals of the Seljuk sultans, but sometimes ''de facto'' rulers themselves. Under the Seljuks, local poets such as [[Nizami Ganjavi]] and [[Khaqani]] gave rise to a blossoming of [[Persian literature]] on the territory of present-day Azerbaijan.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "From the Sasanid period to the Safavid period"], "text": "The local dynasty of the [[Shirvanshah]] became a [[vassal]] state of [[Timurid Empire|Timur's Empire]], and assisted him in his war with the ruler of the [[Golden Horde]] [[Tokhtamysh]]. Following Timur's death, two independent and rival states emerged: [[Kara Koyunlu]] and [[Aq Qoyunlu]]. The Shirvanshahs returned, maintaining for numerous centuries to come a high degree of autonomy as local rulers and vassals as they had done since 861. In 1501, the [[Safavid dynasty]] of Iran subdued the Shirvanshahs and gained its possessions. In the course of the next century, the Safavids [[Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam|converted the formerly Sunni population to Shia Islam]], as they did with the population in what is modern-day Iran. The Safavids allowed the Shirvanshahs to remain in power, under Safavid suzerainty, until 1538, when Safavid king [[Tahmasp I]] (r. 1524–1576) completely deposed them, and made the area into the Safavid province of [[Safavid Shirvan|Shirvan]]. The Sunni Ottomans briefly managed to occupy parts of present-day Azerbaijan as a result of the [[Ottoman-Safavid War (1578-1590)|Ottoman-Safavid War of 1578–1590]]; by the early 17th century, they were ousted by Safavid Iranian ruler [[Abbas I of Persia|Abbas I]] (r. 1588–1629). In the wake of the demise of the Safavid Empire, Baku and its environs were briefly occupied by the Russians as a consequence of the [[Russo-Persian War (1722–23)|Russo-Persian War of 1722–1723]]. Despite brief intermissions such as these by Safavid Iran's neighboring rivals, the land of what is today Azerbaijan remained under Iranian rule from the earliest advent of the Safavids up to the course of the 19th century.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Contemporary history"], "text": "After the [[Safavid]], the area was ruled by the Iranian [[Afsharid dynasty]]. After the death of [[Nader Shah]] (r. 1736–1747), many of his former subjects capitalized on the eruption of instability. Numerous self-ruling [[Khanates of the Caucasus|khanate]] with various forms of autonomy emerged in the area. The rulers of these khanates were directly related to the ruling dynasties of Iran, and were [[vassals]] and [[Commoners|subjects]] of the Iranian shah. The khanates exercised control over their affairs via international trade routes between Central Asia and the West. Thereafter, the area was under the successive rule of the Iranian [[Zand dynasty|Zand]] and [[Qajar dynasty|Qajars]]. From the late 18th century, Imperial Russia switched to a more aggressive geo-political stance towards its two neighbors and rivals to the south, namely Iran and the Ottoman Empire. Russia now actively tried to gain possession of the Caucasus region which was, for the most part, in the hands of Iran. In 1804, the Russians [[Battle of Ganja (1804)|invaded and sacked the Iranian town of Ganja]], sparking the [[Russo-Persian War (1804–13)|Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813]]. The militarily superior Russians ended the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 with a victory. Following Qajar Iran's loss in the 1804–1813 war, it was forced to concede suzerainty over most of the khanates, along with Georgia and Dagestan to the [[Russian Empire]], per the [[Treaty of Gulistan]]. The area to the north of the river [[Aras River|Aras]], amongst which territory lies the contemporary Republic of Azerbaijan, was Iranian territory until it was occupied by Russia in the 19th century. About a decade later, in violation of the Gulistan treaty, the Russians invaded Iran's [[Erivan Khanate]]. This sparked the final bout of hostilities between the two, the [[Russo-Persian War (1826-1828)|Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828]]. The resulting [[Treaty of Turkmenchay]], forced [[Qajar dynasty|Qajar Iran]] to cede sovereignty over the Erivan Khanate, the [[Nakhchivan Khanate]] and the remainder of the [[Lankaran Khanate]], comprising the last parts of the soil of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that were still in Iranian hands. After incorporation of all Caucasian territories from Iran into Russia, the new border between the two was set at the [[Aras River]], which, upon the Soviet Union's disintegration, subsequently became part of the border between Iran and the Azerbaijan Republic. Qajar Iran was forced to cede its Caucasian territories to Russia in the 19th century, which thus included the territory of the modern-day Azerbaijan Republic, while as a result of that cession, the [[Azerbaijanis|Azerbaijani ethnic group]] is nowadays parted between two nations: Iran and Azerbaijan. Nevertheless, the number of ethnic Azerbaijanis in Iran far outnumber those in neighboring Azerbaijan. After the collapse of the Russian Empire during [[World War I]], the short-lived [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic]] was declared, constituting the present-day republics of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Contemporary history"], "text": "It was followed by the [[March Days]] massacres that took place between 30 March and 2 April 1918 in the city of [[Baku]] and adjacent areas of the [[Baku Governorate]] of the [[Russian Empire]]. When the republic dissolved in May 1918, the leading [[Musavat]] party declared independence as the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] (ADR), adopting the name of \"Azerbaijan\" for the new republic; a name that prior to the proclamation of the ADR was solely used to refer to the adjacent [[Iranian Azerbaijan|northwestern region of contemporary Iran]]. The ADR was the first modern [[parliamentary republic]] in the Muslim world. Among the important accomplishments of the Parliament was the extension of suffrage to women, making Azerbaijan the first Muslim nation to grant women equal political rights with men. Another important accomplishment of ADR was the establishment of [[Baku State University]], which was the first modern-type university founded in the Muslim East. By March 1920, it was obvious that Soviet Russia would attack Baku. [[Vladimir Lenin]] said that the invasion was justified as [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Soviet Russia]] could not survive without Baku's [[Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan|oil]]. Independent Azerbaijan lasted only 23 days until the [[Bolshevik]] [[11th Soviet Red Army]] invaded it, establishing the [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan SSR]] on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in [[Karabakh]], Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 Azerbaijani soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest. On 13 October 1921, the Soviet republics of Russia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia signed an agreement with Turkey known as the [[Treaty of Kars]]. The previously independent [[Republic of Aras]] would also become the [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic]] within the Azerbaijan SSR by the treaty of Kars. On the other hand, [[Armenia]] was awarded the region of [[Syunik Province|Zangezur]] and Turkey agreed to return [[Gyumri]] (then known as Alexandropol). During [[World War II]], Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of the Soviet Union, with 80 percent of the Soviet Union's oil on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] being supplied by Baku. By the Decree of the [[Supreme Soviet of the USSR]] in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the [[petroleum industry|oil industry]] of Azerbaijan were awarded orders and medals. [[Operation Edelweiss]] carried out by the German [[Wehrmacht]] targeted Baku because of its importance as the energy (petroleum) dynamo of the USSR. A fifth of all Azerbaijanis fought in the Second World War from 1941 to 1945. Approximately 681,000 people with over 100,000 of them women went to the front, while the total population of Azerbaijan was 3.4 million at the time. Some 250,000 people from Azerbaijan were killed on the front. More than 130 Azerbaijanis were named [[Hero of the Soviet Union|Heroes of the Soviet Union]]. Azerbaijani Major-General [[Azi Aslanov]] was twice awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Independence"], "text": "Following the politics of ''[[glasnost]]'', initiated by [[Mikhail Gorbachev]], civil unrest and ethnic strife grew in various regions of the Soviet Union, including [[Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast|Nagorno-Karabakh]], an autonomous region of the Azerbaijan SSR. The disturbances in Azerbaijan, in response to Moscow's indifference to an already heated conflict, resulted in calls for independence and secession, which culminated in the [[Black January]] events in Baku. Later in 1990, the [[Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR|Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR]] dropped the words \"Soviet Socialist\" from the title, adopted the \"Declaration of Sovereignty of the Azerbaijan Republic\" and restored the flag of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic as the state flag. As a consequence of the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|failed coup which occurred in August in Moscow]], on 18 October 1991, the Supreme Council of Azerbaijan adopted a Declaration of Independence which was affirmed by a nationwide referendum in December 1991, while the Soviet Union officially ceased to exist on 26 December 1991. The country now celebrates its [[Independence Day (Azerbaijan)|Independence Day]] on 18 October. The early years of independence were overshadowed by the [[First Nagorno-Karabakh war]] with the ethnic Armenian majority of Nagorno-Karabakh backed by Armenia. By the end of the hostilities in 1994, Armenians controlled up to 14–16 percent of Azerbaijani territory, including Nagorno-Karabakh itself. During the war many atrocities were committed including the [[massacre]] at [[Malibeyli and Gushchular Massacre|Malibeyli and Gushchular]], the [[Garadaghly Massacre|Garadaghly massacre]] and the [[Khojaly massacre]]. Furthermore, an estimated 30,000 people have been killed and more than a million people have been displaced, more than 800,000 Azerbaijanis and 300,000 Armenians. Four [[United Nations Security Council]] Resolutions ([[United Nations Security Council Resolution 822|822]], [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 853|853]], [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 874|874]], and [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 884|884]]) demand for \"the immediate withdrawal of all Armenian forces from all occupied territories of Azerbaijan.\" Many Russians and Armenians left and fled Azerbaijan as refugees during the 1990s. According to the 1970 census, there were 510,000 ethnic [[Russian diaspora|Russians]] and 484,000 Armenians in Azerbaijan. In 1993, democratically elected president [[Abulfaz Elchibey]] was overthrown by a military insurrection led by Colonel [[Surat Huseynov]], which resulted in the rise to power of the former leader of [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Soviet Azerbaijan]], [[Heydar Aliyev]]. In 1994, Surat Huseynov, by that time the prime minister, attempted another military coup against Heydar Aliyev, but he was arrested and charged with treason. A year later, in 1995, another [[1995 Azerbaijani coup d'état attempt|coup]] was attempted against Aliyev, this time by the commander of the [[OMON]] special unit, [[Rovshan Javadov]]. The coup was averted, resulting in the killing of the latter and disbanding of Azerbaijan's OMON units. At the same time, the country was tainted by rampant corruption in the governing bureaucracy. In October 1998, Aliyev was reelected for a second term. Despite the much improved economy, particularly with the exploitation of the [[Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli|Azeri-Chirag-Guneshli oil field]] and [[Shah Deniz gas field]], Aliyev's presidency was criticized due to suspected election frauds, high levels of economic inequality and [[Corruption in Azerbaijan|domestic corruption]].", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Independence"], "text": "[[Ilham Aliyev]], Heydar Aliyev's son, became chairman of the [[New Azerbaijan Party]] as well as [[President of Azerbaijan]] when his father died in 2003. He was [[Azerbaijani presidential election, 2013|reelected to a third term]] as president in October 2013. On 27 September 2020, new clashes in the unresolved [[Nagorno-Karabakh conflict]] resumed along the [[Nagorno-Karabakh Line of Contact]]. Both the armed forces of Azerbaijan and Armenia reported military and civilian casualties. The [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement|Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement]] and the end of the six-week [[2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war|war between Azerbaijan and Armenia]] was seen as a victory and was widely celebrated in Azerbaijan.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography"], "text": "Geographically, Azerbaijan is located in the [[South Caucasus]] region of [[Eurasia]], straddling [[Southwest Asia|Western Asia]] and Eastern Europe. It lies between latitudes [[38th parallel north|38°]] and [[42nd parallel north|42° N]], and longitudes [[44th meridian east|44°]] and [[51st meridian east|51° E]]. The total length of Azerbaijan's [[List of land border lengths|land borders]] is , of which 1,007 kilometers are with Armenia, 756 kilometers with Iran, 480 kilometers with Georgia, 390 kilometers with Russia and 15 kilometers with Turkey. The [[coast]] stretches for , and the length of the widest area of the Azerbaijani section of the Caspian Sea is . The territory of Azerbaijan extends from north to south, and from west to east. Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan: the Caspian Sea, whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the [[Greater Caucasus]] mountain range to the north; and the extensive flatlands at the country's center. There are also three mountain ranges, the Greater and [[Lesser Caucasus]], and the [[Talysh Mountains]], together covering approximately 40% of the country. The highest peak of Azerbaijan is [[Mount Bazardüzü]] (4,466 m), while the lowest point lies in the Caspian Sea (−28 m). Nearly half of all the [[mud volcano]] on Earth are concentrated in Azerbaijan, [[mud volcanoes in Azerbaijan|these volcanoes]] were also among nominees for the [[New7Wonders of Nature]]. The main water sources are surface waters. However, only 24 of the 8,350 rivers are greater than in length. All the rivers drain into the Caspian Sea in the east of the country. The largest lake is [[Lake Sarysu|Sarysu]] (67 km), and the longest river is [[Kura (Caspian Sea)|Kur]] (1,515 km), which is [[Transboundary river|transboundary]] with [[Armenia]]. Azerbaijan has several islands along the Caspian sea, mostly located in the [[Baku Archipelago]]. Since the independence of Azerbaijan in 1991, the [[Politics of Azerbaijan|Azerbaijani government]] has taken measures to preserve the environment of Azerbaijan. National protection of the environment accelerated after 2001 when the state budget increased due to new revenues provided by the [[Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline]]. Within four years protected areas doubled and now make up eight percent of the country's territory. Since 2001 the government has set up seven large reserves and almost doubled the sector of the budget earmarked for environmental protection.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Landscape"], "text": "Azerbaijan is home to a vast variety of landscapes. Over half of Azerbaijan's landmass consists of [[mountain ridge]], [[Mountain crest|crests]], [[highland]], and [[plateaus]] which rise up to hypsometric levels of 400–1000 meters (including the Middle and Lower lowlands), in some places (Talis, Jeyranchol-Ajinohur and Langabiz-Alat foreranges) up to 100–120 meters, and others from 0–50 meters and up ([[Qobustan, Absheron]]). The rest of Azerbaijan's terrain consists of plains and lowlands. Hypsometric marks within the Caucasus region vary from about −28 meters at the Caspian Sea shoreline up to 4,466 meters (Bazardüzü peak). The formation of climate in Azerbaijan is influenced particularly by cold [[arctic]] [[air mass]] of Scandinavian [[anticyclone]], temperate air masses of [[Siberia]] anticyclone, and Central Asian anticyclone. Azerbaijan's diverse landscape affects the ways air masses enter the country. The Greater Caucasus protects the country from direct influences of cold air masses coming from the north. That leads to the formation of [[Subtropics|subtropical climate]] on most foothills and plains of the country. Meanwhile, plains and foothills are characterized by high [[Sunlight|solar radiation]] rates. 9 out of 11 existing [[Köppen climate classification|climate zones]] are present in Azerbaijan. Both the absolute minimum temperature ( ) and the absolute maximum temperature ( ) were observed in [[Julfa District|Julfa]] and [[Ordubad District|Ordubad]] – regions of [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic]]. The maximum annual [[Precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] falls in [[Lankaran]] () and the minimum in Absheron (). Rivers and lakes form the principal part of the water systems of Azerbaijan, they were formed over a long geological timeframe and changed significantly throughout that period. This is particularly evidenced by remnants of ancient rivers found throughout the country. The country's water systems are continually changing under the influence of natural forces and human-introduced industrial activities. Artificial rivers (canals) and ponds are a part of Azerbaijan's water systems. In terms of water supply, Azerbaijan is below the average in the world with approximately per year of water per square kilometer. All big [[Reservoir|water reservoirs]] are built on Kur. The hydrography of Azerbaijan basically belongs to the [[Caspian Sea basin]]. The [[Kura (Caspian Sea)|Kura]] and [[Aras River|Aras]] are the major rivers in Azerbaijan, they run through the [[Kura-Aras Lowland]]. The rivers that directly flow into the Caspian Sea, originate mainly from the north-eastern slope of the Major Caucasus and [[Talysh Mountains]] and run along the Samur–Devechi and Lankaran lowlands. [[Yanar Dag]], translated as \"burning mountain\", is a natural gas fire which blazes continuously on a hillside on the [[Absheron Peninsula]] on the [[Caspian Sea]] near [[Baku]], which itself is known as the \"land of fire.\" Flames jet out into the air from a thin, porous sandstone layer. It is a tourist attraction to visitors to the Baku area.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Geography", "Biodiversity"], "text": "The first reports on the richness and diversity of animal life in Azerbaijan can be found in travel notes of Eastern travelers. Animal carvings on architectural monuments, ancient rocks, and stones survived up to the present times. The first information on the flora and fauna of Azerbaijan was collected during the visits of naturalists to Azerbaijan in the 17th century. There are 106 species of mammals, 97 species of fish, 363 species of birds, 10 species of amphibians and 52 species of reptiles which have been recorded and classified in Azerbaijan. The national animal of Azerbaijan is the [[Karabakh horse]], a mountain-steppe racing and riding horse endemic to Azerbaijan. The Karabakh horse has a reputation for its good temper, speed, elegance and intelligence. It is one of the oldest breeds, with ancestry dating to the ancient world. However, today the horse is an endangered species. Azerbaijan's flora consists of more than 4,500 species of [[higher plants]]. Due to the unique climate in Azerbaijan, the flora is much richer in the number of species than the flora of the other republics of the South Caucasus. 66 percent of the species growing in the whole [[Caucasus]] can be found in Azerbaijan. The country lies within four ecoregions: [[Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests]], [[Caucasus mixed forests]], [[Eastern Anatolian montane steppe]], and [[Azerbaijan shrub desert and steppe]]. Azerbaijan had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 6.55/10, ranking it 72nd globally out of 172 countries.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Politics"], "text": "The structural formation of Azerbaijan's political system was completed by the adoption of the new [[Constitution of Azerbaijan|Constitution]] on 12 November 1995. According to Article 23 of the Constitution, the [[National symbol|state symbols]] of the Azerbaijan Republic are the [[Flag of Azerbaijan|flag]], the [[Coat of arms of Azerbaijan|coat of arms]], and the [[National Anthem of the Republic of Azerbaijan|national anthem]]. The state power in Azerbaijan is limited only by law for internal issues, but international affairs is additionally limited by the provisions of international agreements. The Constitution of Azerbaijan states that it is a presidential republic with three branches of power – Executive, Legislative, and Judicial. The legislative power is held by the [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] [[National Assembly of Azerbaijan|National Assembly]] and the Supreme National Assembly in the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. The Parliament of Azerbaijan, called Milli Majlis, consists of 125 deputies elected based on [[first past the post|majority vote]], with a term of 5 years for each elected member. The elections are held every five years, on the first Sunday of November. The Parliament is not responsible for the formation of the government, but the Constitution requires the approval of the Cabinet of Ministers by Milli Majlis. The [[New Azerbaijan Party]], and independents loyal to the ruling government, currently hold almost all of the Parliament's 125 seats. During the [[Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 2010|2010 Parliamentary election]], the opposition parties, [[Musavat]] and [[Azerbaijani Popular Front Party]], failed to win a single seat. European observers [[Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 2010#Campaign irregularities|found numerous irregularities]] in the run-up to the election and [[Azerbaijani parliamentary election, 2010#Election|on election day]]. The executive power is held by the [[President of Azerbaijan|President]], who is elected for a seven-year term by direct elections, and the [[Prime Minister of Azerbaijan|Prime Minister]]. The president is authorized to form the Cabinet, a collective executive body, accountable to both the President and the National Assembly. The Cabinet of Azerbaijan consists primarily of the prime minister, his deputies, and ministers. The president does not have the right to dissolve the National Assembly but has the right to veto its decisions. To override the presidential veto, the parliament must have a majority of 95 votes. The judicial power is vested in the [[Constitutional Court of Azerbaijan|Constitutional Court]], [[Supreme Court of Azerbaijan|Supreme Court]], and the Economic Court. The president nominates the judges in these courts. The [[European Commission for the Efficiency of Justice]] (CEPEJ) report refers to the Azerbaijani justice model on the selection of new judges as best practice, reflecting the particular features and the course of development towards ensuring the independence and quality of the judiciary in a new democracy.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Politics"], "text": "Azerbaijan's system of governance nominally can be called two-tiered. The top or highest tier of the government is the Executive Power headed by President. The President appoints the Cabinet of Ministers and other high-ranking officials. The Local Executive Authority is merely a continuation of Executive Power. The legal status of local state administration in Azerbaijan is determined by the Provision on Local Executive Authority (''Yerli Icra Hakimiyati''), adopted 16 June 1999. In June 2012, the President approved the new Regulation, which granted additional powers to Local Executive Authorities, strengthening their dominant position in Azerbaijan's local affairs Chapter 9 of the Constitution of the Azerbaijan Republic addresses major issues of local self-government, such as the legal status of municipalities, types of local self-government bodies, their basic powers and relationships to other official entities. The other nominal tier of governance is municipalities (''Bələdiyə'') and members of municipalities are elected by a general vote in Municipal elections every five years. Currently, there are 1,607 municipalities across the country. The Law on Municipal Elections and the Law on the Status of Municipalities were the first to be adopted in the field of local government (2 July 1999). The Law on Municipal Service regulates the activities of municipal employees, their rights, duties, labor conditions and social benefits, and outlines the structure of the executive apparatus and the organization of municipal service. The Law on the Status of Municipalities regulates the role and structure of municipal bodies and outlines state guarantees of legal and financial autonomy. The law pays special attention to the adoption and execution of municipal programs concerning social protection, social and economic development, and the local environment. The Security Council is the deliberative body under the president, and he organizes it according to the Constitution. It was established on 10 April 1997. The administrative department is not a part of the president's office but manages the financial, technical and pecuniary activities of both the president and his office. Although Azerbaijan has held several elections since regaining its independence and it has many of the formal institutions of democracy, it remains classified as \"not free\" (on border with \"partly free\") by [[Freedom House]]. In recent years, large numbers of Azerbaijani journalists, bloggers, lawyers, and human rights activists have been rounded up and jailed for their criticism of President Aliyev and government authorities. A resolution adopted by the European Parliament in September 2015 described Azerbaijan as \"having suffered the greatest decline in democratic governance in all of Eurasia over the past ten years,\" noting as well that its dialogue with the country on human rights has \"not made any substantial progress.\" On 17 March 2016, the President of Azerbaijan signed a decree pardoning more than a dozen of the persons regarded as political prisoners by some NGOs. This decree was welcomed as a positive step by the US State Department. On 16 March 2017 another pardon decree was signed, which led to the release of additional persons regarded as political prisoners.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Politics"], "text": "Azerbaijan has been harshly criticized for bribing foreign officials and diplomats in order to promote its causes abroad and legitimize its elections at home, a practice which has been termed as [[Caviar diplomacy]]. However, on 6 March 2017, [[European strategic intelligence and security center|ESISC]] (European Strategic Intelligence and Security Center) published a report called \"The Armenian Connection\", in which it attacked human rights NGOs and research organisations criticising human rights violations and corruption in Azerbaijan. [[European strategic intelligence and security center|ESISC]] in that report asserted that the \"Caviar Diplomacy\" report elaborated by ESI aimed to create a climate of suspicion based on slander to form a network of MPs that would engage in a political war against Azerbaijan and that the network, composed of European PMs, Armenian officials, and some NGOs (Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, \"Human Rights House Foundation\", \"Open Dialog, European Stability Initiative, and Helsinki Committee for Human Rights) was financed by the Soros Foundation. According to Robert Coalson (Radio Free Europe), ESISC is a part of Baku's lobbying efforts to extend the use of front think tanks to shift public opinion. Freedom Files Analytical Centre said that \"The report is written in the worst traditions of authoritarian propaganda\".", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Politics", "Foreign relations"], "text": "The short-lived Azerbaijan Democratic Republic succeeded in establishing diplomatic relations with six countries, sending diplomatic representatives to Germany and Finland. The process of international recognition of Azerbaijan's independence from the collapsing Soviet Union lasted roughly one year. The most recent country to recognize Azerbaijan was Bahrain, on 6 November 1996. Full diplomatic relations, including mutual exchanges of missions, were first established with Turkey, Pakistan, the United States, Iran and Israel. Azerbaijan has placed a particular emphasis on its \"[[Special relationship (international relations)|special relationship]]\" with Turkey. Azerbaijan has diplomatic relations with 158 countries so far and holds membership in 38 international organizations. It holds observer status in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and [[World Trade Organization]] and is a correspondent at the [[International Telecommunication Union]]. On 9 May 2006 Azerbaijan was elected to membership in the newly established [[Human Rights Council]] by the [[United Nations General Assembly]]. The term of office began on 19 June 2006. Azerbaijan was first elected as a non-permanent member of the [[United Nations Security Council election, 2011|UN Security Council in 2011]] with the support of 155 countries. Foreign policy priorities of Azerbaijan include, first of all, the restoration of its territorial integrity; elimination of the consequences of occupation of Nagorno-Karabakh and seven other regions of Azerbaijan surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh; integration into European and Euro-Atlantic structure; contribution to international security; cooperation with international organizations; regional cooperation and bilateral relations; strengthening of defense capability; promotion of security by domestic policy means; strengthening of democracy; preservation of ethnic and religious tolerance; scientific, educational, and cultural policy and preservation of moral values; economic and social development; enhancing internal and border security; and migration, energy, and transportation security policy. Azerbaijan is an active member of international coalitions fighting international terrorism. Azerbaijan was one of the first countries to offer support after the [[September 11 attacks]]. The country is contributing to peacekeeping efforts in Kosovo, Afghanistan and Iraq. Azerbaijan is an active member of [[NATO]]'s [[Partnership for Peace]] program. It also maintains good relations with the [[European Union]] and could potentially one day apply for membership.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Politics", "Administrative divisions"], "text": "Azerbaijan is divided into 10 economic regions; 66 [[Raion|rayons]] (''rayonlar'', singular ''rayon'') and 77 cities (''şəhərlər'', singular ''şəhər'') of which 12 are under the direct authority of the republic. Moreover, Azerbaijan includes the [[Autonomous Republic]] (''muxtar respublika'') of [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic|Nakhchivan]]. The [[President of Azerbaijan]] appoints the governors of these units, while the government of Nakhchivan is elected and approved by the parliament of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic. (-) [[Absheron Economic Region]] (-) [[Absheron District|Absheron]] (Abşeron) (-) [[Khizi District|Khizi]] (Xızı) (-) ''[[Baku]]'' (Bakı) (-) ''[[Sumqayit]]'' (Sumqayıt) (-) [[Aran economic region|Aran Economic Region]] (-) [[Aghjabadi District|Aghjabadi]] (Ağcabədi) (-) [[Agdash District|Aghdash]] (Ağdaş) (-) [[Barda District|Barda]] (Bərdə) (-) [[Beylagan District|Beylagan]] (Beyləqan) (-) [[Bilasuvar District|Bilasuvar]] (Biləsuvar) (-) [[Goychay District|Goychay]] (Göyçay) (-) [[Hajigabul District|Hajigabul]] (Hacıqabul) (-) [[Imishli District|Imishli]] (İmişli) (-) [[Kurdamir District|Kurdamir]] (Kürdəmir) (-) [[Neftchala District|Neftchala]] (Neftçala) (-) [[Saatly District|Saatly]] (Saatlı) (-) [[Sabirabad District|Sabirabad]] (Sabirabad) (-) [[Salyan District, Azerbaijan|Salyan]] (Salyan) (-) [[Ujar District|Ujar]] (Ucar) (-) [[Yevlakh District|Yevlakh]] (Yevlax) (-) [[Zardab District|Zardab]] (Zərdab) (-) ''[[Mingachevir]]'' (Mingəçevir) (-) ''[[Shirvan (city)|Shirvan]]'' (Şirvan) (-) ''[[Yevlakh]]'' (Yevlax) (-) [[Mountainous Shirvan economic region|Mountainous Shirvan Economic Region]] (-) [[Agsu District|Aghsu]] (Ağsu) (-) [[Gobustan District|Gobustan]] (Qobustan) (-) [[Ismailli District|Ismailly]] (İsmayıllı) (-) [[Shamakhi District|Shamakhy]] (Şamaxı) (-) [[Ganja-Qazakh Economic Region]] (-) [[Agstafa District|Aghstafa]] (Ağstafa) (-) [[Dashkasan District|Dashkasan]] (Daşkəsən) (-) [[Gadabay District|Gadabay]] (Gədəbəy) (-) [[Qazakh District|Qazakh]] (Qazax) (-) [[Goygol District|Goygol]] (Göygöl) (-) [[Goranboy District|Goranboy]] (Goranboy) (-) [[Samukh District|Samukh]] (Samux) (-) [[Shamkir District|Shamkir]] (Şəmkir) (-) [[Tovuz District|Tovuz]] (Tovuz) (-) ''[[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]]'' (Gəncə) (-) ''[[Naftalan, Azerbaijan|Naftalan]]'' (Naftalan) (-) [[Guba-Khachmaz economic region|Quba-Khachmaz Economic Region]] (-) [[Quba District (Azerbaijan)|Quba]] (Quba) (-) [[Qusar District|Qusar]] (Qusar) (-) [[Khachmaz District|Khachmaz]] (Xaçmaz) (-) [[Shabran District|Shabran]] (Şabran) (-) [[Siazan District|Siyazan]] (Siyəzən) (-) [[Kalbajar-Lachin|Kalbajar-Lachin Economic Region]] (-) [[Qubadli District|Gubadly]] (Qubadlı) (-) [[Kalbajar District|Kalbajar]] (Kəlbəcər) (-) [[Lachin District|Lachin]] (Laçın) (-) [[Zangilan District|Zangilan]] (Zəngilan) (-) [[Lankaran Economic Region]] (-) [[Astara District|Astara]] (Astara) (-) [[Jalilabad District (Azerbaijan)|Jalilabad]] (Cəlilabad) (-) [[Lankaran District|Lankaran]] (Lənkəran) (-) [[Lerik District|Lerik]] (Lerik) (-) [[Masally District|Masally]] (Masallı) (-) [[Yardymli District|Yardimly]] (Yardımlı) (-) ''[[Lankaran]]'' (Lənkəran) (-) Nakhchivan (-) [[Babek District|Babek]] (Babək) (-) [[Julfa District|Julfa]] (Culfa) (-) [[Kangarli District|Kangarli]] (Kəngərli) (-) [[Ordubad District|Ordubad]] (Ordubad) (-) [[Sadarak District|Sadarak]] (Sədərək) (-) [[Shahbuz District|Shahbuz]] (Şahbuz) (-) [[Sharur District|Sharur]] (Şərur) (-) ''[[Nakhchivan City|Nakhchivan]]'' (Naxçıvan) (-) [[Shaki-Zagatala Economic Region]] (-) [[Balakan District|Balakan]] (Balakən) (-) [[Qabala District|Gabala]] (Qəbələ) (-) [[Qakh District|Gakh]] (Qax) (-) [[Oghuz District|Oghuz]] (Oğuz) (-) [[Shaki District|Shaki]] (Şəki) (-) [[Zaqatala District|Zaqatala]] (Zaqatala) (-) ''[[Shaki, Azerbaijan|Shaki]]'' (Şəki) (-) [[Upper Karabakh economic region|Upper Karabakh Economic Region]] (-) [[Agdam District|Aghdam]] (Ağdam) (-) [[Fuzuli District|Fuzuli]] (Füzuli) (-) [[Jabrayil District|Jabrayil]] (Cəbrayıl) (-) [[Khojaly District|Khojaly]] (Xocalı) (-) [[Khojavend District|Khojavend]] (Xocavənd) (-) [[Shusha District|Shusha]] (Şuşa) (-) [[Tartar District|Tartar]] (Tərtər) (-) ''[[Stepanakert|Khankendi]]'' (Xankəndi) (-) ''[[Shusha]]'' (Şuşa)  ''Note: The cities under the direct authority of the republic in italics''.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Military"], "text": "The history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]] in 1918, when the National Army of the newly formed Azerbaijan Democratic Republic was created on 26 June 1918. When Azerbaijan gained independence after the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created according to the Law on the Armed Forces of 9 October 1991. The original date of the establishment of the short-lived National Army is celebrated as Army Day (26 June) in today's Azerbaijan. As of 2021, Azerbaijan had 126,000 active personnel in its armed forces. There are also 17,000 paramilitary troops and 330,00 reserve personnel. The armed forces have three branches: the [[Army of Azerbaijan|Land Forces]], the [[Azerbaijani Air Forces|Air Forces]] and the [[Azerbaijan Navy|Navy]]. Additionally the armed forces embrace several military sub-groups that can be involved in state defense when needed. These are the [[Internal Troops (Azerbaijan)|Internal Troops]] of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the [[Azerbaijan Border Guard|State Border Service]], which includes the [[Azerbaijan Coast Guard|Coast Guard]] as well. The [[Azerbaijan National Guard]] is a further paramilitary force. It operates as a semi-independent entity of the Special State Protection Service, an agency subordinate to the President. Azerbaijan adheres to the [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]] and has signed all major international arms and weapons treaties. Azerbaijan closely cooperates with [[NATO]] in programs such as [[Partnership for Peace]] and [[Individual Partnership Action Plan|Individual Partnership Action Plan/pfp and ipa]]. Azerbaijan has deployed 151 of its Peacekeeping Forces in Iraq and another 184 in Afghanistan. The defense budget of Azerbaijan for 2011 was set at US$3.1 billion. In addition to that, $1.36 billion was planned to be used for the needs of the [[Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan|defense industry]], which bring up the total military budget to 4.6 billion. Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev said on 26 June 2011 that the defence spending reached $3.3 billion that year. Azerbaijan's defense budget for 2013 is $3.7 billion. Azerbaijani defense industry manufactures small arms, artillery systems, tanks, armors and [[Night vision device|noctovision devices]], aviation bombs, UAV'S/unmanned aerial vehicle, various military vehicles and military planes and helicopters.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy"], "text": "After gaining independence in 1991, Azerbaijan became a member of the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[World Bank]], the [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]], the [[Islamic Development Bank]], and the [[Asian Development Bank]]. The banking system of Azerbaijan consists of the [[Central Bank of Azerbaijan]], [[commercial bank]] and non-banking credit organizations. The National (now Central) Bank was created in 1992 based on the Azerbaijan State Savings Bank, an affiliate of the former State Savings Bank of the USSR. The Central Bank serves as Azerbaijan's central bank, empowered to issue the national currency, the [[Azerbaijani manat]], and to supervise all commercial banks. Two major commercial banks are [[Unibank (Azerbaijan)|UniBank]] and the state-owned [[International Bank of Azerbaijan]], run by Abbas Ibrahimov. Pushed up by spending and demand growth, the 2007 [[First quarter of a calendar year|Q1]] inflation rate reached 16.6%. Nominal incomes and monthly wages climbed 29% and 25% respectively against this figure, but price increases in the non-oil industry encouraged inflation. Azerbaijan shows some signs of the so-called \"[[Dutch disease]]\" because of its fast-growing energy sector, which causes inflation and makes non-energy exports more expensive. In the early 2000s, chronically high inflation was brought under control. This led to the launch of a new currency, the new Azerbaijani manat, on 1 January 2006, to cement the economic reforms and erase the vestiges of an unstable economy. In 2008, Azerbaijan was cited as one of the top 10 reformers by the World Bank's [[Doing Business Report]]. Azerbaijan is also ranked 57th in the [[Global Competitiveness Report]] for 2010–2011, above other CIS countries. By 2012 the [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] of Azerbaijan had increased 20-fold from its 1995 level. According to [[World Bank]]'s [[Doing Business report]] 2019, Azerbaijan improved its position in the Ease of doing business rank from 57 to 25. As a result of implementing a record number of reforms mainly involving institutional changes among the 10 top improvers, to do business in Azerbaijan became easier, such as time and cost to get construction permit reduced significantly (time by 80 days and cost by 12.563 [[Azerbaijani manat|AZN]]), process of connecting electricity grid rationalized, as well as getting credit simplified.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Energy and natural resources"], "text": "Two-thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas. The history of the oil industry of Azerbaijan dates back to the ancient period. Arabian historian and traveler Ahmed Al-Belaruri discussed the economy of the Absheron peninsula in antiquity, mentioning its oil in particular. There are many [[pipelines in Azerbaijan]]. The goal of the [[Southern Gas Corridor]], which connects the giant [[Shah Deniz gas field]] in Azerbaijan to Europe, is to reduce European Union's dependency on Russian gas. The region of the [[Lesser Caucasus]] accounts for most of the country's gold, silver, iron, copper, [[titanium]], [[chromium]], [[manganese]], [[cobalt]], [[molybdenum]], complex [[ore]] and [[antimony]]. In September 1994, a 30-year contract was signed between the [[State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic]] (SOCAR) and 13 oil companies, among them [[Amoco]], [[BP]], [[ExxonMobil]], [[Lukoil]] and [[Equinor]]. As Western oil companies are able to tap deepwater [[oil field|oilfields]] untouched by the Soviet exploitation, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for [[Hydrocarbon exploration|oil exploration]] and development. Meanwhile, the [[State Oil Fund of Azerbaijan]] was established as an extra-budgetary fund to ensure [[macroeconomy|macroeconomic]] stability, transparency in the management of oil revenue, and safeguarding of resources for future generations. Access to [[biocapacity]] in Azerbaijan is less than world average. In 2016, Azerbaijan had 0.8 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory, half the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person. In 2016 Azerbaijan used 2.1 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use more biocapacity than Azerbaijan contains. As a result, Azerbaijan is running a biocapacity deficit. Azeriqaz, a sub-company of SOCAR, intends to ensure full gasification of the country by 2021. Azerbaijan is one of the sponsors of the east-west and north-south energy transport corridors. [[Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway]] line will connect the Caspian region with Turkey, is expected to be completed in July 2017. The [[Trans-Anatolian gas pipeline]] (TANAP) and [[Trans Adriatic Pipeline|Trans-Adriatic Pipeline]] (TAP) will deliver natural gas from Azerbaijan's Shah Deniz gas to Turkey and Europe. Azerbaijan extended the agreement on development of [[Azeri–Chirag–Gunashli|ACG]] until 2050 according to the amended [[Production sharing agreement|PSA]] signed on 14 September 2017 by [[SOCAR]] and co-ventures ([[BP]], [[Chevron Corporation|Chevron]], [[Inpex]], [[Equinor]], [[ExxonMobil]], [[Türkiye Petrolleri Anonim Ortaklığı|TP]], ITOCHU and [[Oil and Natural Gas Corporation|ONGC Videsh]]).", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Agriculture"], "text": "Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region. About 54.9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural land. At the beginning of 2007 there were 4,755,100 hectares of utilized agricultural area. In the same year the total wood resources counted 136 million m³. Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows and pastures, horticulture and [[subtropical]] crops, green vegetables, [[viticulture]] and [[Azerbaijani wine|wine-making]], cotton growing and [[medicinal plants]]. In some areas it is profitable to grow grain, potatoes, [[sugar beet]], cotton and tobacco. Livestock, dairy products, and wine and [[Distilled spirit|spirits]] are also important farm products. The Caspian [[fishing industry]] concentrates on the dwindling stocks of [[sturgeon]] and [[Beluga (sturgeon)|beluga]]. In 2002 the Azerbaijani [[merchant marine]] had 54 ships. Some products previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally. Among them are Coca-Cola by Coca-Cola Bottlers LTD., beer by Baki-Kastel, parquet by Nehir and oil pipes by EUPEC Pipe Coating Azerbaijan.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Tourism"], "text": "Tourism is an important part of the [[economy of Azerbaijan]]. The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s. However, the fall of the Soviet Union, and the [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]] during the 1990s, damaged the tourist industry and the image of Azerbaijan as a tourist destination. It was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays. In the recent years, Azerbaijan has also become a popular destination for religious, spa, and [[Azerbaijani medical tourism|health care tourism]]. During winter, the [[Shahdag Mountain Resort]] offers skiing with state of the art facilities. The [[government of Azerbaijan]] has set the development of Azerbaijan as an elite tourist destination as a top priority. It is a national strategy to make tourism a major, if not the single largest contributor to the Azerbaijani economy. These activities are regulated by the [[Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Azerbaijan)|Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Azerbaijan]]. There are 63 countries which have visa-free score. E-visa – for a visit of foreigners of visa-required countries to the Republic of Azerbaijan. According to the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report 2015 of the World Economic Forum, Azerbaijan holds 84th place. According to a report by the World Travel and Tourism Council, Azerbaijan was among the top ten countries showing the strongest growth in visitor exports between 2010 and 2016, In addition, Azerbaijan placed first (46.1%) among countries with the fastest-developing travel and tourism economies, with strong indicators for inbound international visitor spending last year.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Transportation"], "text": "The convenient location of Azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries, such as the [[Silk Road]] and the south-north corridor, highlights the strategic importance of the transportation sector for the country's economy. The transport sector in the country includes roads, railways, aviation, and maritime transport. Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials. The [[Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline]] (BTC) became operational in May 2006 and extends more than 1,774 kilometers through the territories of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey. The BTC is designed to transport up to 50 million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields to global markets. The [[South Caucasus Pipeline]], also stretching through the territory of Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey, became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the [[Shah Deniz gas field]]. Shah Deniz is expected to produce up to 296 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year. Azerbaijan also plays a major role in the EU-sponsored Silk Road Project. In 2002, the Azerbaijani government established the Ministry of Transport with a broad range of policy and regulatory functions. In the same year, the country became a member of the [[Vienna Convention on Road Traffic]]. Priorities are upgrading the transport network and improving transportation services in order to better facilitate the development of other sectors of the economy. The 2012 construction of [[Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway]] was meant to improve transportation between Asia and Europe by connecting the railways of China and Kazakhstan in the east to the European railway system in the west via Turkey. In 2010 [[Russian gauge|Broad-gauge]] railways and electrified railways stretched for and respectively. By 2010, there were 35 airports and one [[heliport]].", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Economy", "Science and technology"], "text": "In the 21st century, a new oil and gas boom helped to improve the situation in Azerbaijan's science and technology sectors, and the government launched a campaign aimed at modernization and [[List of Azerbaijani inventions and discoveries|innovation]]. The government estimates that profits from the information technology and communication industry will grow and become comparable to those from oil production. Azerbaijan has a large and steadily growing Internet sector, mostly uninfluenced by the [[financial crisis of 2007–2008]]; rapid growth is forecast for at least five more years. The country has also been making progress in developing its telecoms sector. The Ministry of Communications & Information Technologies (MCIT), as well as being an operator through its role in Aztelekom, is both a policy-maker and regulator. Public payphones are available for local calls and require the purchase of a token from the telephone exchange or some shops and kiosks. Tokens allow a call of indefinite duration. , there were 1,397,000 main telephone lines and 1,485,000 internet users. There are four [[GSM]] providers: [[Azercell]], [[:az:Bakcell|Bakcell]], Azerfon ([[Nar Mobile]]), [[Nakhtel]] mobile network operators and one [[CDMA]]. In the 21st century a number of prominent Azerbaijani [[geodynamics]] and [[geotectonics]] scientists, inspired by the fundamental works of Elchin Khalilov and others, designed hundreds of earthquake prediction stations and earthquake-resistant buildings that now constitute the bulk of The Republican Center of Seismic Service. The [[Azerbaijan National Aerospace Agency]] launched its first satellite [[AzerSat 1]] into orbit on 7 February 2013 from [[Guiana Space Centre]] in French Guiana at orbital positions 46° East. The satellite covers Europe and a significant part of Asia and Africa and serves the transmission of TV and radio broadcasting as well as the Internet. The launching of a satellite into orbit is Azerbaijan's first step in realizing its goal of becoming a nation with its own space industry, capable of successfully implementing more projects in the future.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics"], "text": "As of January 2019, 52.8% of Azerbaijan's total population of 9,981,457 is [[urban area|urban]], with the remaining 47.2% being rural. 50.1% of the total population is female. The [[Human sex ratio|sex ratio]] in the same year was 0.99 males per female. The 2011 population growth-rate was 0.85%, compared to 1.09% worldwide. A significant factor restricting population growth is a high level of migration. In 2011 Azerbaijan saw a migration of −1.14/1,000 people. The [[Azerbaijani diaspora]] is found in 42 countries and in turn there are many centers for ethnic minorities inside Azerbaijan, including the [[Germans in Azerbaijan|German]] cultural society \"Karelhaus\", [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] cultural center, Azerbaijani-Israeli community, [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] cultural center, International [[Talysh people|Talysh]] Association, [[Lezgins|Lezgin]] national center \"Samur\", Azerbaijani-[[Tatarstan|Tatar]] community, [[Crimean Tatars]] society, etc.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Ethnic groups"], "text": "The ethnic composition of the population according to the 2009 population census: 91.6% [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijanis]], 2.0% [[Lezgians|Lezgins]], 1.4% [[Armenians]] (almost all Armenians live in the break-away region of [[Republic of Nagorno-Karabakh|Nagorno-Karabakh]]), 1.3% [[Russians]], 1.3% [[Talysh people|Talysh]], 0.6% [[Caucasian Avars|Avars]], 0.4% [[Turkish people|Turks]], 0.3% [[Tatars]], 0.3% [[Tat people (Caucasus)|Tats]], 0.2% [[Ukrainians]], 0.1% [[Tsakhur people|Tsakhurs]], 0.1% [[Georgians]], 0.1% [[Jew]], 0.1% [[Kurdish people|Kurds]], other 0.2%.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Urbanisation"], "text": "In total, Azerbaijan has 78 cities, 63 city districts, and one special legal status city. These are followed by 261 urban-type settlements and 4248 villages.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Languages"], "text": "The official language is [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], which is a [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]]. Azerbaijani is spoken by approximately 92% of the population as a [[mother tongue]]. Russian and [[Armenian language|Armenian]] (only in Nagorno-Karabakh) are also spoken, and each are the mother tongue of around 1.5% of the population respectively. There are a dozen other minority languages spoken natively in the country. [[Avar language|Avar]], [[Budukh language|Budukh]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Juhuri language|Juhuri]], [[Khinalug language|Khinalug]], [[Kryts language|Kryts]], [[Lezgian language|Lezgin]], [[Rutul language|Rutul]], [[Talysh language|Talysh]], [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]], [[Tsakhur language|Tsakhur]], and [[Udi language|Udi]] are all spoken by small minorities. Some of these language communities are very small and their numbers are decreasing. Armenian was the majority language in Nagorno-Karabakh with around 76% in 1989. After the first Nagorno-Karabakh war, the population is almost exclusively Armenian at around 95%.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Religion"], "text": "Azerbaijan is considered the most secular Muslim-majority country. Around 97% of the population are Muslims. 85% of the Muslims are [[Shia Islam|Shia]] and 15% [[Sunni Muslim|Sunni]]; the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second highest proportion of Shia Muslims of any country in the world. Other faiths are practised by the country's various ethnic groups. Under article 48 of its [[Constitution of Azerbaijan|Constitution]], Azerbaijan is a [[secular state]] and ensures religious freedom. In a 2006–2008 [[Gallup (company)|Gallup]] poll, only 21% of respondents from Azerbaijan stated that religion is an important part of their daily lives. Of the nation's religious minorities, the estimated 280,000 Christians (3.1%) are mostly [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian]] and [[Georgian Orthodox Church|Georgian]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]] (almost all Armenians live in the break-away region of Nagorno-Karabakh). In 2003, there were 250 [[Roman Catholics]]. Other Christian denominations as of 2002 include [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Baptists]] and [[Molokan]]. There is also a small [[Protestant]] community. Azerbaijan also has an ancient [[Jewish]] population with a [[Mountain Jews|2,000-year history]]; Jewish organizations estimate that 12,000 Jews remain in Azerbaijan. Azerbaijan also is home to members of the [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]], [[International Society for Krishna Consciousness|Hare Krishna]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] communities, as well as adherents of the other religious communities. Some religious communities have been [[Freedom of religion in Azerbaijan#Restrictions on religious freedom|unofficially restricted from religious freedom]]. A [[U.S. State Department]] report on the matter mentions detention of members of certain Muslim and Christian groups, and many groups have difficulty registering with the SCWRA.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Demographics", "Education"], "text": "A relatively high percentage of Azerbaijanis have obtained some form of higher education, most notably in scientific and technical subjects. In the Soviet era, literacy and average education levels rose dramatically from their very low starting point, despite two changes in the standard alphabet, from [[Perso-Arabic script]] to [[Latin script|Latin]] in the 1920s and from Roman to [[Cyrillic]] in the 1930s. According to Soviet data, 100 percent of males and females (ages nine to forty-nine) were literate in 1970. According to the [[United Nations Development Program]] Report 2009, the literacy rate in Azerbaijan is 99.5 percent. Since independence, one of the first laws that Azerbaijan's Parliament passed to disassociate itself from the Soviet Union was to adopt a [[Azerbaijani alphabet|modified-Latin alphabet]] to replace Cyrillic. Other than that the Azerbaijani system has undergone little structural change. Initial alterations have included the reestablishment of religious education (banned during the Soviet period) and curriculum changes that have reemphasized the use of the Azerbaijani language and have eliminated ideological content. In addition to elementary schools, the education institutions include thousands of preschools, general secondary schools, and [[vocational schools]], including specialized secondary schools and technical schools. Education through the ninth grade is compulsory.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture"], "text": "The culture of Azerbaijan has developed as a result of many influences; that's why Azerbaijanis are, in many ways, bi-cultural. Today, national traditions are well preserved in the country despite Western influences, including [[globalization|globalized]] consumer culture. Some of the main elements of the Azerbaijani culture are: music, literature, folk dances and art, cuisine, architecture, cinematography and [[Novruz in Azerbaijan|Novruz Bayram]]. The latter is derived from the traditional celebration of the New Year in the ancient Iranian religion of [[Zoroastrianism]]. Novruz is a family holiday. The profile of Azerbaijan's population consists, as stated above, of Azerbaijanis, as well as other nationalities or ethnic groups, compactly living in various areas of the country. Azerbaijani national and traditional dresses are the [[Chokha]] and [[Papakhi]]. There are radio broadcasts in Russian, [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Lezgian language|Lezgian]] and [[Talysh language|Talysh]] languages, which are financed from the state budget. Some local radio stations in [[Balakən|Balakan]] and [[Khachmaz (city)|Khachmaz]] organize broadcasts in [[Avar language|Avar]] and [[Tat language (Caucasus)|Tat]]. In Baku several newspapers are published in Russian, Kurdish (''Dengi Kurd''), Lezgian (''Samur'') and Talysh languages. Jewish society \"Sokhnut\" publishes the newspaper ''Aziz''.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Music and folk dances"], "text": "Music of Azerbaijan builds on [[Folk music|folk traditions]] that reach back nearly a thousand years. For centuries Azerbaijani music has evolved under the badge of [[monody]], producing rhythmically diverse melodies. Azerbaijani music has a branchy [[Musical mode|mode]] system, where [[Chromaticism|chromatization]] of [[major and minor]] [[Musical scale|scales]] is of great importance. Among national musical instruments there are 14 [[string instrument]], eight percussion instruments and six wind instruments. According to ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians|The Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'', \"in terms of ethnicity, culture and religion the Azerbaijani are musically much closer to Iran than Turkey.\" [[Mugham]], [[meykhana]] and [[Art of Azerbaijani ashiqs|ashiq art]] are among the many musical traditions of Azerbaijan. Mugham is usually a suite with poetry and instrumental interludes. When performing mugham, the singers have to transform their emotions into singing and music. In contrast to the mugham traditions of Central Asian countries, Azerbaijani mugham is more free-form and less rigid; it is often compared to the improvised field of [[jazz]]. [[UNESCO]] proclaimed the Azerbaijani mugham tradition a [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] on 7 November 2003. Meykhana is a kind of traditional Azerbaijani distinctive folk unaccompanied song, usually performed by several people improvising on a particular subject. Ashiq combines poetry, storytelling, dance, and vocal and instrumental music into a traditional performance art that stands as a symbol of Azerbaijani culture. It is a mystic troubadour or traveling bard who sings and plays the [[baglama|saz]]. This tradition has its origin in the [[Shamanistic]] beliefs of ancient [[Turkic peoples]]. Ashiqs' songs are semi-improvised around common bases. Azerbaijan's ashiq art was included in the list of [[Intangible Cultural Heritage]] by the UNESCO on 30 September 2009. Since the mid-1960s, Western-influenced [[Azerbaijani pop music]], in its various forms, that has been growing in popularity in Azerbaijan, while genres such as [[Azerbaijani rock|rock]] and [[Azerbaijani hip hop|hip hop]] are widely produced and enjoyed. Azerbaijani pop and [[Azerbaijani folk music]] arose with the international popularity of performers like [[Alim Qasimov]], [[Rashid Behbudov]], [[Vagif Mustafazadeh]], [[Muslim Magomayev (musician)|Muslim Magomayev]], [[Shovkat Alakbarova]] and [[Rubaba Muradova]]. Azerbaijan is an enthusiastic participant in the Eurovision Song Contest. Azerbaijan made its debut appearance at the 2008 [[Eurovision Song Contest 2008|Eurovision Song Contest]]. The country's [[Azerbaijan in the Eurovision Song Contest 2009|entry]] gained third place in 2009 and fifth the following year. [[Eldar & Nigar|Ell and Nikki]] won the first place at the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2011]] with the song \"[[Running Scared (Eldar & Nigar song)|Running Scared]]\", entitling Azerbaijan to host the contest in [[Eurovision Song Contest 2012|2012]], in Baku. They have qualified for every Grand Final up until the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2018|2018 edition of the contest]], entering with [[X My Heart (song)|X My Heart]] by singer [[Aisel (singer)|Aisel]]. There are dozens of Azerbaijani [[folk dance]]. They are performed at formal celebrations and the dancers wear national clothes like the [[Chokha]], which is well-preserved within the national dances. Most dances have a very fast rhythm.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Literature"], "text": "Among the medieval authors born within the territorial limits of modern Azerbaijani Republic was Persian poet and philosopher [[Nizami Ganjavi|Nizami]], called Ganjavi after his place of birth, [[Ganja, Azerbaijan|Ganja]], who was the author of the [[Khamseh]] (\"The Quintuplet\"), composed of five romantic poems, including \"The Treasure of Mysteries,\" \"Khosrow and Shīrīn,\" and \"Leyli and Mejnūn.\" The earliest known figure in Azerbaijani literature was [[Izzeddin Hasanoglu]], who composed a [[Diwan (poetry)|divan]] consisting of Persian and Turkic [[ghazal]]. In Persian ghazals he used his pen-name, while his Turkic ghazals were composed under his own name of Hasanoghlu. Classical literature in Azerbaijani was formed in the 14th century based on the various Early Middle Ages dialects of [[Tabriz]] and [[Shirvan]]. Among the poets of this period were [[Kadi Burhan al-Din|Gazi Burhanaddin]], [[Jahan Shah|Haqiqi]] (pen-name of [[Jahan Shah|Jahan-shah Qara Qoyunlu]]), and Habibi. The end of the 14th century was also the period of starting literary activity of [[Nesimi|Imadaddin Nasimi]], one of the greatest [[Turkic language|Turkic]] [[Hurufi]] [[Mysticism|mystical]] poets of the late 14th and early 15th centuries and one of the most prominent early divan masters in Turkic literary history, who also composed poetry in [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic language|Arabic]]. The divan and ghazal styles were further developed by poets [[Qasem-e Anvar]], [[Fuzûlî|Fuzuli]] and [[Khatai]] (pen-name of [[Safavid dynasty|Safavid]] [[Shah Ismail I]]). The [[Book of Dede Korkut]] consists of two manuscripts copied in the 16th century, was not written earlier than the 15th century. It is a collection of 12 stories reflecting the oral tradition of Oghuz nomads. The 16th-century poet, Muhammed Fuzuli produced his timeless philosophical and lyrical ''Qazals'' in Arabic, Persian, and Azerbaijani. Benefiting immensely from the fine literary traditions of his environment, and building upon the legacy of his predecessors, Fuzuli was destined to become the leading literary figure of his society. His major works include ''The Divan of Ghazals'' and ''The Qasidas''. In the same century, Azerbaijani literature further flourished with the development of [[Ashik]] () poetic genre of bards. During the same period, under the pen-name of Khatāī ( for ''sinner'') Shah Ismail I wrote about 1400 verses in Azerbaijani, which were later published as his ''Divan''. A unique literary style known as ''qoshma'' ( for ''improvisation'') was introduced in this period, and developed by Shah Ismail and later by his son and successor, Shah [[Tahmasp I]]. In the span of the 17th and 18th centuries, Fuzuli's unique genres as well [[Ashik]] poetry were taken up by prominent poets and writers such as [[Qovsi of Tabriz]], [[Abbas II of Persia|Shah Abbas Sani]], [[:ru:Ага Масих Ширвани|Agha Mesih Shirvani]], Nishat, [[Molla Vali Vidadi]], [[Molla Panah Vagif]], Amani, Zafar and others. Along with [[Turkish people|Turks]], [[Turkmens]] and [[Uzbeks]], [[Azerbaijanis]] also celebrate the [[Epic of Koroglu]] (from for ''blind man's son''), a legendary folk hero. Several documented versions of Koroglu epic remain at the Institute for Manuscripts of the [[National Academy of Sciences of Azerbaijan]].", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Literature"], "text": "Modern literature in Azerbaijan is based on the Shirvani dialect mainly, while in Iran it is based on the Tabrizi one. The first newspaper in Azerbaijani, ''[[Akinchi]]'' was published in 1875. In the mid-19th century, it was taught in the schools of [[Baku]], [[Ganja (city)|Ganja]], [[Shaki, Azerbaijan|Shaki]], [[Tbilisi]], and [[Yerevan]]. Since 1845, it was also taught in the [[University of Saint Petersburg]] in Russia.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Folk art"], "text": "Azerbaijanis have a rich and distinctive culture, a major part of which is [[decorative art|decorative]] and [[applied art]]. This form of art is represented by a wide range of handicrafts, such as chasing, jeweling, engraving in metal, carving in wood, stone, and bone, carpet-making, lasing, pattern weaving and printing, knitting and embroidery. Each of these types of decorative art, evidence of the endowments of the Azerbaijan nation, is very much in favor here. Many interesting facts pertaining to the development of arts and crafts in Azerbaijan were reported by numerous merchants, travelers, and diplomats who had visited these places at different times. The [[Azerbaijani rug|Azerbaijani carpet]] is a traditional handmade textile of various sizes, with a dense texture and a pile or pile-less surface, whose patterns are characteristic of Azerbaijan's many carpet-making regions. In November 2010 the Azerbaijani carpet was proclaimed a [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity|Masterpiece of Intangible Heritage]] by [[UNESCO]]. Azerbaijan has been since ancient times known as a center of a large variety of crafts. The archeological dig on the territory of Azerbaijan testifies to the well-developed agriculture, stock raising, metalworking, pottery, ceramics, and carpet-weaving that date as far back as to the 2nd millennium BC. Archeological sites in Dashbulaq, Hasansu, Zayamchai, and Tovuzchai uncovered from the BTC pipeline have revealed early Iron Age artifacts. Azerbaijani carpets can be categorized under several large groups and a multitude of subgroups. Scientific research of the Azerbaijani carpet is connected with the name of [[Latif Karimov]], a prominent scientist and artist. It was his classification that related the four large groups of carpets with the four geographical zones of Azerbaijan, Guba-Shirvan, Ganja-Kazakh, Karabakh and Tabriz.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Cuisine"], "text": "The traditional cuisine is famous for an abundance of vegetables and greens used seasonally in the dishes. Fresh herbs, including mint, cilantro (coriander), dill, basil, parsley, tarragon, leeks, chives, thyme, marjoram, green onion, and watercress, are very popular and often accompany main dishes on the table. Climatic diversity and fertility of the land are reflected in the national dishes, which are based on fish from the [[Caspian Sea]], local meat (mainly mutton and beef), and an abundance of seasonal vegetables and greens. Saffron-rice [[plov]] is the flagship food in Azerbaijan and [[black tea]] is the national beverage. Azerbaijanis often use traditional [[armudu]] (pear-shaped) glass as they have very strong [[Azerbaijani tea culture|tea culture]]. Popular traditional dishes include [[bozbash]] (lamb soup that exists in several regional varieties with the addition of different vegetables), [[qutab]] (fried turnover with a filling of greens or minced meat) and [[dushbara]] (sort of dumplings of dough filled with ground meat and flavor).", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Architecture"], "text": "Azerbaijani architecture typically combines elements of [[Eastern world|East]] and [[Western culture|West]]. Azerbaijiani architecture has heavy influences from Persian architecture. Many ancient architectural treasures such as the [[Maiden Tower (Baku)|Maiden Tower]] and [[Palace of the Shirvanshahs]] in the [[Baku|Walled City of Baku]] survive in modern Azerbaijan. Entries submitted on the [[UNESCO World Heritage]] tentative list include the [[Ateshgah of Baku]], [[Momine Khatun Mausoleum]], [[Hirkan National Park]], [[Binagadi asphalt lake]], [[Lökbatan Mud Volcano]], [[Shusha State Historical and Architectural Reserve]], Baku Stage Mountain, Caspian Shore Defensive Constructions, Ordubad National Reserve and the [[Palace of Shaki Khans]]. Among other architectural treasures are [[Quadrangular castle (Mardakan)|Quadrangular Castle]] in [[Mardakan]], [[Parigala]] in [[Yuxarı Çardaqlar|Yukhary Chardaglar]], a number of bridges spanning the Aras River, and several mausoleums. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, little monumental architecture was created, but distinctive residences were built in Baku and elsewhere. Among the most recent architectural monuments, the [[Baku Metro|Baku subways]] are noted for their lavish decor. The task for modern Azerbaijani architecture is diverse application of modern aesthetics, the search for an architect's own artistic style and inclusion of the existing historico-cultural environment. Major projects such as [[Heydar Aliyev Cultural Center]], [[Flame Towers]], [[Baku Crystal Hall]], [[Baku White City]] and [[SOCAR Tower]] have transformed the country's skyline and promotes its contemporary identity.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Visual art"], "text": "Azerbaijani art includes one of the oldest art objects in the world, which were discovered as [[Gamigaya Petroglyphs]] in the territory of [[Ordubad District]] are dated back to the 1st to 4th centuries BC. About 1500 dislodged and carved rock paintings with images of deer, goats, bulls, dogs, snakes, birds, fantastic beings and also people, carriages and various symbols had been found out on basalt rocks. Norwegian [[ethnographer]] and adventurer [[Thor Heyerdahl]] was convinced that people from the area went to [[Scandinavia]] in about 100 AD, took their boat building skills with them, and transmuted them into the Viking boats in Northern Europe. Over the centuries, Azerbaijani art has gone through many stylistic changes. Azerbaijani painting is traditionally characterized by a warmth of colour and light, as exemplified in the works of [[Azim Azimzade]] and [[Bahruz Kangarli]], and a preoccupation with religious figures and cultural motifs. Azerbaijani painting enjoyed preeminence in Caucasus for hundreds of years, from the [[Romanesque art|Romanesque]] and [[Culture of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] periods, and through the [[Socialist realism|Soviet]] and [[Baroque]] periods, the latter two of which saw fruition in Azerbaijan. Other notable artists who fall within these periods include [[Sattar Bahlulzade]], [[Togrul Narimanbekov]], [[Tahir Salahov]], [[Alakbar Rezaguliyev]], [[Mirza Gadim Iravani]], [[Mikayil Abdullayev]] and [[Boyukagha Mirzazade]].", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Cinema"], "text": "The film industry in Azerbaijan dates back to 1898. In fact, Azerbaijan was among the first countries involved in [[cinematography]]. Therefore, it is not surprising that this apparatus soon showed up in [[Baku]] – at the start of the 20th century, this bay town on the [[Caspian Sea|Caspian]] was producing more than 50 percent of the world's supply of oil. Just like today, the oil industry attracted foreigners eager to invest and to work. In 1919, during the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]], a documentary ''The Celebration of the Anniversary of Azerbaijani Independence'' was filmed on the first anniversary of Azerbaijan's independence from Russia, 27 May, and premiered in June 1919 at several theatres in Baku. After the Soviet power was established in 1920, Nariman Narimanov, Chairman of the Revolutionary Committee of Azerbaijan, signed a decree nationalizing Azerbaijan's cinema. This also influenced the creation of [[Azerbaijani animation]]. In 1991, after Azerbaijan gained its independence from the Soviet Union, the first Baku International Film Festival East-West was held in Baku. In December 2000, the former President of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev, signed a decree proclaiming 2 August to be the professional holiday of filmmakers of Azerbaijan. Today Azerbaijani filmmakers are again dealing with issues similar to those faced by cinematographers prior to the establishment of the Soviet Union in 1920. Once again, both choices of content and sponsorship of films are largely left up to the initiative of the filmmaker.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Television"], "text": "There are three state-owned television channels: [[AzTV]], [[Idman Azerbaijan TV|Idman TV]] and [[Medeniyyet TV]]. There is one public channel and 6 private channels: [[İctimai Television]], [[Space TV]], [[Lider TV]], [[Azad Azerbaijan TV]], [[:az:Xəzər TV|Xazar TV]], [[:az:Real TV (Azərbaycan)|Real TV]] and [[Region TV|ARB]].", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Human rights in Azerbaijan"], "text": "The [[Constitution of Azerbaijan]] claims to guarantee freedom of speech, but this is denied in practice. After several years of decline in press and media freedom, in 2014, the media environment in Azerbaijan deteriorated rapidly under a governmental campaign to silence any opposition and criticism, even while the country led the Committee of Ministers of the [[Council of Europe]] (May–November 2014). Spurious legal charges and impunity in violence against journalists have remained the norm. All foreign broadcasts are banned in the country. According to the 2013 [[Freedom House]] [[Freedom of the Press (report)|Freedom of the Press report]], Azerbaijan's press freedom status is \"not free,\" and Azerbaijan ranks 177th out of 196 countries. Christianity is officially recognized, but in practice it is often oppressed. All religious communities are required to register to be allowed to meet, under the risk of imprisonment. This registration is often denied. \"Racial discrimination contributes to the country’s lack of religious freedom, since many of the Christians are ethnic Armenian or Russian, rather than Azeri Muslim.\" [[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]] and [[Voice of America]] are banned in Azerbaijan. Discrimination against [[LGBT rights in Azerbaijan|LGBT people]] in Azerbaijan is widespread. During the last few years, three journalists were killed and several prosecuted in trials described as unfair by international human rights organizations. Azerbaijan had the biggest number of journalists imprisoned in Europe in 2015, according to the [[Committee to Protect Journalists]], and is the 5th most censored country in the world, ahead of Iran and China. Some critical journalists have been [[COVID-19 misinformation#Efforts to combat misinformation|arrested]] for their coverage of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Azerbaijan]]. A report by an [[Amnesty International]] researcher in October 2015 points to '...the severe deterioration of human rights in Azerbaijan over the past few years. Sadly Azerbaijan has been allowed to get away with unprecedented levels of repression and in the process almost wipe out its civil society'. Amnesty's 2015/16 annual report on the country stated ' ... persecution of political dissent continued. Human rights organizations remained unable to resume their work. At least 18 prisoners of conscience remained in detention at the end of the year. Reprisals against independent journalists and activists persisted both in the country and abroad, while their family members also faced harassment and arrests. International human rights monitors were barred and expelled from the country. Reports of torture and other ill-treatment persisted.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Human rights in Azerbaijan"], "text": "''[[The Guardian]]'' reported in April 2017 that \"Azerbaijan's ruling elite operated a secret $2.9bn (£2.2bn) scheme to pay prominent Europeans, buy luxury goods and launder money through a network of opaque British companies ... Leaked data shows that the Azerbaijani leadership, accused of serial human rights abuses, systemic corruption and rigging elections, made more than 16,000 covert payments from 2012 to 2014. Some of this money went to politicians and journalists, as part of an international lobbying operation to deflect criticism of Azerbaijan's president, Ilham Aliyev, and to promote a positive image of his oil-rich country.\" There was no suggestion that all recipients were aware of the source of the money as it arrived via a disguised route.", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Sport"], "text": "Freestyle wrestling has been traditionally regarded as Azerbaijan's [[national sport]], in which Azerbaijan won up to [[Azerbaijan at the Olympics|fourteen medals]], including four golds since joining the [[International Olympic Committee]]. Currently, the most popular sports include [[association football|football]] and wrestling. Football is the most popular sport in Azerbaijan, and the [[Association of Football Federations of Azerbaijan]] with 9,122 registered players, is the largest sporting association in the country. The [[Azerbaijan national football team|national football team]] of Azerbaijan demonstrates relatively low performance in the international arena compared to the nation football clubs. The most successful Azerbaijani football clubs are [[Neftchi Baku PFC|Neftchi Baku]], [[FK Qarabağ|Qarabağ]], and [[Gabala FK|Gabala]]. In [[2012–13 UEFA Europa League|2012]], Neftchi Baku became the first Azerbaijani team to advance to the group stage of a European competition, beating [[APOEL F.C.|APOEL]] of Cyprus 4–2 on aggregate in the play-off round of the [[2012–13 UEFA Europa League]]. In [[2014–15 UEFA Europa League|2014]], Qarabağ became the second Azerbaijani club advancing to the group stage of [[UEFA Europa League]]. In 2017, after beating [[F.C. Copenhagen|Copenhagen]] 2–2([[Away goals rule|a]]) in the play-off round of the [[2017–18 UEFA Champions League|UEFA Champions League]], Qarabağ became the first Azerbaijani club to reach the Group stage. [[Futsal]] is another popular sport in Azerbaijan. The [[Azerbaijan national futsal team]] reached fourth place in the [[2010 UEFA Futsal Championship]], while domestic club [[Araz Naxçivan]] clinched bronze medals at the [[2009–10 UEFA Futsal Cup]] and [[2013–14 UEFA Futsal Cup]]. Azerbaijan was the main sponsor of Spanish football club [[Atlético de Madrid]] during seasons 2013/2014 and 2014/2015, a partnership that the club described should 'promote the image of Azerbaijan in the world'. Azerbaijan is one of the traditional powerhouses of world chess, having hosted many international chess tournaments and competitions and became [[European Team Chess Championship]] winners in 2009, 2013 and 2017. Notable chess players from country's chess schools that made a great impact on the game in world, includes [[Teimour Radjabov]], [[Shahriyar Mammadyarov]], [[Vladimir Makogonov]], [[Vugar Gashimov]] and former [[World Chess Champion]] [[Garry Kasparov]]. , country's home of [[Shamkir Chess]] a category 22 event and one of the highest rated tournaments of all time. [[Backgammon]] also plays a major role in Azerbaijani culture. The game is very popular in Azerbaijan and is widely played among the local public. There are also different variations of backgammon developed and analyzed by Azerbaijani experts. [[Azerbaijan Women's Volleyball Super League]] is one of the strongest women leagues in the world. Its women's national team came fourth at the [[2005 Women's European Volleyball Championship|2005 European Championship]]. Over the last years, clubs like [[Rabita Baku]] and [[Azerrail Baku]] achieved great success at European cups. Azerbaijani volleyball players include likes of [[Valeriya Korotenko]], [[Oksana Parkhomenko]], [[Inessa Korkmaz]], [[Natalya Mammadova]] and [[Alla Hasanova]].", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": ["Culture", "Sport"], "text": "Other Azerbaijani athletes are [[Namig Abdullayev]], [[Toghrul Asgarov]], [[Rovshan Bayramov]], [[Sharif Sharifov]], [[Mariya Stadnik]] and [[Farid Mansurov]] in [[Amateur wrestling|wrestling]], [[Nazim Huseynov]], [[Elnur Mammadli]], [[Elkhan Mammadov (judoka)|Elkhan Mammadov]] and [[Rustam Orujov]] in judo, [[Rafael Aghayev]] in [[karate]], [[Magomedrasul Majidov]] and [[Aghasi Mammadov]] in [[boxing]], [[Nizami Pashayev]] in [[Olympic weightlifting]], [[Azad Asgarov]] in [[pankration]], [[Eduard Mammadov]] in kickboxing, and [[K-1]] fighter [[Zabit Samedov]]. Azerbaijan has a [[Baku City Circuit|Formula One race-track]], made in June 2012, and the country hosted its first [[2016 European Grand Prix|Formula One Grand Prix]] on 19 June 2016 and the [[Azerbaijan Grand Prix]] in 2017, 2018 and 2019. Other annual sporting events held in the country are the [[Baku Cup]] tennis tournament and the [[Tour d'Azerbaïdjan]] cycling race. Azerbaijan hosted several major sport competitions since the late 2000s, including the [[2013 F1 Powerboat World Championship season|2013 F1 Powerboat World Championship]], [[2012 FIFA U-17 Women's World Cup]], [[2011 AIBA World Boxing Championships]], [[2010 European Wrestling Championships]], [[2009 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships]], [[European Taekwondo Championships|2014 European Taekwondo Championships]], [[2014 Rhythmic Gymnastics European Championships]], and [[42nd Chess Olympiad|2016 World Chess Olympiad]]. On 8 December 2012, [[Baku]] was selected to host the [[2015 European Games]], the first to be held in the competition's history. Baku also hosted the fourth [[Islamic Solidarity Games]] in 2017, [[2019 European Youth Summer Olympic Festival]] and it is also one of the hosts of [[UEFA Euro 2020]].", "id": "746", "title": "Azerbaijan", "categories": ["Azerbaijan", "Caucasus", "Countries in Asia", "Countries in Europe", "Eastern European countries", "Western Asian countries", "Landlocked countries", "Member states of the Turkic Council", "Transcaucasia", "Republics", "Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States", "Member states of the Council of Europe", "Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation", "Member states of the United Nations", "States and territories established in 1991", "1991 establishments in Asia", "1991 establishments in Europe", "Azerbaijani-speaking countries and territories", "Russian-speaking countries and territories", "Transcontinental countries"], "seealso": ["Outline of Azerbaijan", "List of World Heritage Sites in Azerbaijan", "Index of Azerbaijan-related articles"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "[[Image:Astronomy Amateur 3 V2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Amateur astronomers watch the night sky during the [[Perseids|Perseid]] meteor shower.]] '''Amateur astronomy''' is a [[hobby]] where participants enjoy observing or imaging celestial objects in the [[sky]] using the [[Naked eye|unaided eye]], [[binoculars]], or [[telescope]]. Even though scientific [[research]] may not be their primary goal, some amateur astronomers make contributions in doing [[citizen science]], such as by monitoring [[variable stars]], [[double stars]], [[sunspot]], or [[occultation]] of [[star]] by the [[Moon]] or [[asteroid]], or by discovering [[transient astronomical event]], such as [[comet]], galactic [[nova]] or [[supernova]] in other [[galaxy|galaxies]]. Amateur astronomers do not use the field of [[astronomy]] as their primary source of [[income]] or support, and usually have no [[professional degree]] in astrophysics or advanced academic training in the subject. Most amateurs are [[hobby]], while others have a high degree of experience in astronomy and may often assist and work alongside professional astronomers. Many astronomers have studied the sky throughout history in an amateur framework; however, since the beginning of the twentieth century, professional astronomy has become an activity clearly distinguished from amateur astronomy and associated activities. Amateur astronomers typically view the [[sky]] at night, when most celestial objects and astronomical events are visible, but others observe during the daytime by viewing the [[Sun]] and [[solar eclipse]]. Some just look at the sky using nothing more than their eyes or [[binoculars]], but more dedicated amateurs often use portable [[optical telescope|telescopes]] or telescopes situated in their private or club [[observatory|observatories]]. Amateurs can also join as members of amateur [[astronomical society|astronomical societies]], which can advise, educate or guide them towards ways of finding and observing celestial objects. They can also promote the science of astronomy among the general public.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Objectives"], "text": "Collectively, amateur astronomers observe a variety of celestial objects and [[phenomenon|phenomena]]. Common targets of amateur astronomers include the [[Sun]], the [[Moon]], [[planet]], [[star]], [[comet]], [[meteor shower]], and a variety of [[deep sky object]] such as [[star cluster]], [[galaxy|galaxies]], and [[nebula]]. Many amateurs like to specialise in observing particular objects, types of objects, or types of events which interest them. One branch of amateur astronomy, amateur [[astrophotography]], involves the taking of photos of the night sky. Astrophotography has become more popular with the introduction of far easier to use equipment including, digital cameras, DSLR cameras and relatively sophisticated purpose built high quality [[CCD camera]]. Most amateur astronomers work at visible [[electromagnetic spectrum|wavelengths]], but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the [[visible spectrum]]. An early pioneer of [[radio astronomy]] was [[Grote Reber]], an amateur astronomer who constructed the first purpose built [[radio telescope]] in the late 1930s to follow up on the discovery of [[radio frequency|radio wavelength]] emissions from space by [[Karl Guthe Jansky|Karl Jansky]]. Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of [[infrared filter]] on conventional telescopes, and also the use of [[radio telescope]]. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were originally built for astronomical research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The [[One-Mile Telescope]] is one such example.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Common tools"], "text": "Amateur astronomers use a range of instruments to study the [[sky]], depending on a combination of their interests and resources. Methods include simply looking at the night sky with the [[naked eye]], using [[binoculars]], and using a variety of [[optical telescope]] of varying power and quality, as well as additional sophisticated equipment, such as [[camera]], to study light from the sky in both the visual and non-visual parts of the [[electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]]. Commercial telescopes are available, new and used, but it is also common for amateur astronomers to build (or commission the building of) their own custom telescopes. Some people even focus on [[amateur telescope making]] as their primary interest within the hobby of amateur astronomy. Although specialized and experienced amateur astronomers tend to acquire more specialized and more powerful equipment over time, relatively simple equipment is often preferred for certain tasks. Binoculars, for instance, although generally of lower power than the majority of telescopes, also tend to provide a wider [[field of view]], which is preferable for looking at some objects in the night sky. Amateur astronomers also use [[star chart]] that, depending on experience and intentions, may range from simple [[planisphere]] through to detailed charts of very specific areas of the night sky. A range of astronomy software is available and used by amateur astronomers, including software that generates maps of the sky, software to assist with astrophotography, observation scheduling software, and software to perform various calculations pertaining to astronomical phenomena. Amateur astronomers often like to keep records of their observations, which usually takes the form of an observing log. Observing logs typically record details about which objects were observed and when, as well as describing the details that were seen. Sketching is sometimes used within logs, and photographic records of observations have also been used in recent times. The information gathered is used to help studies and interactions between amateur astronomers in yearly gatherings. Although not professional information or credible, it is a way for the hobby lovers to share their new sightings and experiences. The popularity of imaging among amateurs has led to large numbers of web sites being written by individuals about their images and equipment. Much of the social interaction of amateur astronomy occurs on mailing lists or discussion groups. Discussion group servers host numerous astronomy lists. A great deal of the commerce of amateur astronomy, the buying and selling of equipment, occurs online. Many amateurs use online tools to plan their nightly observing sessions, using tools such as the [[Clear Sky Chart]].", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Common techniques"], "text": "While a number of interesting celestial objects are readily identified by the naked eye, sometimes with the aid of a star chart, many others are so faint or inconspicuous that technical means are necessary to locate them. Although many methods are used in amateur astronomy, most are variations of a few specific techniques.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Common techniques", "Star hopping"], "text": "'''Star hopping''' is a method often used by amateur astronomers with low-tech equipment such as binoculars or a manually driven telescope. It involves the use of maps (or memory) to locate known landmark stars, and \"hopping\" between them, often with the aid of a [[finderscope]]. Because of its simplicity, star hopping is a very common method for finding objects that are close to naked-eye stars. More advanced methods of locating objects in the sky include [[telescope mount]] with ''setting circles'', which assist with pointing telescopes to positions in the sky that are known to contain objects of interest, and ''GOTO telescopes'', which are fully automated telescopes that are capable of locating objects on demand (having first been [[calibration|calibrated]]).", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Common techniques", "Mobile apps"], "text": "The advent of [[mobile app]] for use in [[smartphones]] has led to the creation of many dedicated apps. These apps allow any user to easily locate celestial objects of interest by simply pointing the smartphone device in that direction in the sky. These apps make use of the inbuilt hardware in the phone, such as [[GPS]] location and [[gyroscope]]. Useful information about the pointed object like [[celestial coordinates]], the name of the object, its constellation, etc. are provided for a quick reference. Some paid versions give more information. These apps are gradually getting into regular use during observing, for the alignment process of telescopes.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Common techniques", "Setting circles"], "text": "'''Setting circles''' are [[angular measurement]] scales that can be placed on the two main [[Rotation around a fixed axis|rotation axes]] of some telescopes. Since the widespread adoption of digital setting circles, any classical engraved setting circle is now specifically identified as an \"analog setting circle\" (ASC). By knowing the [[coordinate]] of an object (usually given in [[equatorial coordinates]]), the telescope user can use the setting circle to align (i.e., point) the telescope in the appropriate direction before looking through its [[eyepiece]]. A computerized setting circle is called a \"digital setting circle\" (DSC). Although digital setting circles can be used to display a telescope's [[right ascension|RA]] and [[declination|Dec]] coordinates, they are not simply a digital read-out of what can be seen on the telescope's analog setting circles. As with go-to telescopes, digital setting circle computers (commercial names include Argo Navis, Sky Commander, and NGC Max) contain databases of tens of thousands of celestial objects and projections of planet positions. To find a celestial object in a telescope equipped with a DSC computer, one does not need to look up the specific RA and Dec coordinates in a book or other resource, and then adjust the telescope to those numerical readings. Rather, the object is chosen from the electronic database, which causes distance values and arrow markers to appear in the display that indicate the distance and direction to move the telescope. The telescope is moved until the two angular distance values reach zero, indicating that the telescope is properly aligned. When both the RA and Dec axes are thus \"zeroed out\", the object should be in the eyepiece. Many DSCs, like go-to systems, can also work in conjunction with laptop sky programs. Computerized systems provide the further advantage of computing coordinate precession. Traditional printed sources are subtitled by the [[Epoch (astronomy)|''epoch'' year]], which refers to the positions of celestial objects at a given time to the nearest year (e.g., J2005, J2007). Most such printed sources have been updated for intervals of only about every fifty years (e.g., J1900, J1950, J2000). Computerized sources, on the other hand, are able to calculate the right ascension and declination of the \"epoch of date\" to the exact instant of observation.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Common techniques", "GoTo telescopes"], "text": "'''GOTO telescopes''' have become more popular since the 1980s as technology has improved and prices have been reduced. With these computer-driven telescopes, the user typically enters the name of the item of interest and the mechanics of the telescope point the telescope towards that item automatically. They have several notable advantages for amateur astronomers intent on [[research]]. For example, GOTO telescopes tend to be faster for locating items of interest than star hopping, allowing more time for studying of the object. GOTO also allows manufacturers to add equatorial tracking to mechanically simpler alt-azimuth telescope mounts, allowing them to produce an overall less expensive product. GOTO telescopes usually have to be calibrated using alignment stars in order to provide accurate tracking and positioning. However, several telescope manufacturers have recently developed telescope systems that are calibrated with the use of built-in GPS, decreasing the time it takes to set up a telescope at the start of an observing session.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Common techniques", "Remote-controlled telescopes"], "text": "With the development of fast Internet in the last part of the 20th century along with advances in computer controlled telescope mounts and CCD cameras \"Remote Telescope\" astronomy is now a viable means for amateur astronomers not aligned with major telescope facilities to partake in research and deep sky imaging. This enables anyone to control a telescope a great distance away in a dark location. The observer can image through the telescope using CCD cameras. The digital data collected by the telescope is then transmitted and displayed to the user by means of the Internet. An example of a digital remote telescope operation for public use via the Internet is the [[Bareket observatory]], and there are telescope farms in [[New Mexico]], [[Australia]] and [[Atacama Desert#Astronomical observatories|Atacama]] in Chile.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Common techniques", "Imaging techniques"], "text": "Amateur astronomers engage in many imaging techniques including [[film]], [[DSLR]], [[LRGB]], and [[charge-coupled device|CCD]] [[astrophotography]]. Because CCD imagers are linear, [[image processing]] may be used to subtract away the effects of light pollution, which has increased the popularity of astrophotography in urban areas. Narrowband filters may also be used to minimize light pollution.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Scientific research"], "text": "Scientific [[research]] is most often not the ''main'' goal for many amateur astronomers, unlike professional astronomers. Work of scientific merit is possible, however, and many amateurs successfully contribute to the knowledge base of professional astronomers. Astronomy is sometimes promoted as one of the few remaining sciences for which amateurs can still contribute useful data. To recognize this, the [[Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] annually gives [[Amateur Achievement Award of Astronomical Society of the Pacific|Amateur Achievement Awards]] for significant contributions to astronomy by amateurs. The majority of scientific contributions by amateur astronomers are in the area of data collection. In particular, this applies where large numbers of amateur astronomers with small telescopes are more effective than the relatively small number of large telescopes that are available to professional astronomers. Several organizations, such as the [[American Association of Variable Star Observers]] and the [[British Astronomical Association]], exist to help coordinate these contributions. Amateur astronomers often contribute toward activities such as monitoring the changes in brightness of [[variable star]] and [[supernova]], helping to track [[asteroid]], and observing [[occultation]] to determine both the shape of asteroids and the shape of the terrain on the apparent edge of the [[Moon]] as seen from Earth. With more advanced equipment, but still cheap in comparison to professional setups, amateur astronomers can measure the light spectrum emitted from astronomical objects, which can yield high-quality scientific data if the measurements are performed with due care. A relatively recent role for amateur astronomers is searching for overlooked phenomena (e.g., [[Kreutz Sungrazers]]) in the vast libraries of digital images and other data captured by Earth and space based observatories, much of which is available over the Internet. In the past and present, amateur astronomers have played a major role in discovering new [[comet]]. Recently however, funding of projects such as the [[LINEAR|Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research]] and [[Near Earth Asteroid Tracking]] projects has meant that most comets are now discovered by automated systems long before it is possible for amateurs to see them.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Societies"], "text": "There are a large number of amateur [[astronomical society|astronomical societies]] around the world, that serve as a meeting point for those interested in amateur astronomy. Members range from active observers with their own equipment to \"armchair astronomers\" who are simply interested in the topic. Societies range widely in their goals and activities, which may depend on a variety of factors such as geographic spread, local circumstances, size, and membership. For example, a small local society located in dark countryside may focus on practical observing and [[star parties]], whereas a large one based in a major city might have numerous members but be limited by [[light pollution]] and thus hold regular indoor meetings with guest speakers instead. Major national or international societies generally publish their own [[Academic journal|journal]] or [[newsletter]], and some hold large multi-day meetings akin to a [[scientific conference]] or [[convention (meeting)|convention]]. They may also have sections devoted to particular topics, such as [[lunar observation]] or [[amateur telescope making]].", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Notable amateur astronomers"], "text": "(-) [[George Alcock]], discovered several comets and novae. (-) [[Thomas Bopp]], shared the discovery of [[Comet Hale-Bopp]] in 1995 with unemployed PhD physicist [[Alan Hale (astronomer)|Alan Hale]]. (-) [[Robert Burnham Jr.]] (1931–1993), author of the ''Celestial Handbook''. (-) [[Andrew Ainslie Common]] (1841–1903), built his own very large reflecting telescopes and demonstrated that photography could record astronomical features invisible to the human eye. (-) [[Robert E. Cox]] (1917–1989) who conducted the \"Gleanings for ATMs\" column in ''[[Sky & Telescope]]'' magazine for 21 years. (-) [[John Dobson (amateur astronomer)|John Dobson]] (1915–2014), whose name is associated with the [[Dobsonian telescope]]. (-) [[Robert Evans (astronomer)|Robert Owen Evans]] is an amateur astronomer who holds the all-time record for visual discoveries of [[supernova]]. (-) [[Clinton B. Ford]] (1913–1992), who specialized in the observation of [[variable stars]]. (-) [[John Ellard Gore]] (1845–1910), who specialized in the observation of [[variable stars]]. (-) [[Edward Halbach]] (1909–2011), who specialized in the observation of [[variable stars]]. (-) [[Will Hay]], the famous comedian and actor, who discovered a white spot on Saturn. (-) [[Walter Scott Houston]] (1912–1993) who wrote the \"Deep-Sky Wonders\" column in ''[[Sky & Telescope]]'' magazine for almost 50 years. (-) [[Albert Graham Ingalls|Albert G. Ingalls]] (1888–1958), editor of ''Amateur Telescope Making, Vols. 1–3'' and \"[[The Amateur Scientist]]\". (-) [[Peter Jalowiczor]] (born in 1966) discovered four exoplanets (-) [[David H. Levy]] discovered or co-discovered 22 comets including [[Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9]], the most for any individual. (-) [[Terry Lovejoy]] discovered five comets in the 21st century and developed modifications to DSLR cameras for astrophotography. (-) [[Patrick Moore|Sir Patrick Moore]] (1923–2012), presenter of the BBC's long-running ''[[The Sky at Night]]'' and author of many books on astronomy. (-) [[Leslie Peltier]] (1900–1980), a prolific discoverer of comets and well-known observer of variable stars. (-) [[John M. Pierce]] (1886–1958) was one of the founders of the [[Russell W. Porter#Springfield Telescope Makers|Springfield Telescope Makers]]. (-) [[Russell W. Porter]] (1871–1949) founded [[Stellafane]] and has been referred to as the \"founder\" (-) [[Grote Reber]] (1911–2002), pioneer of [[radio astronomy]] constructing the first purpose built [[radio telescope]] and conducted the first [[astronomical survey|sky survey]] in the radio frequency. (-) [[Isaac Roberts]] (1829–1904), early experimenter in astronomical photography.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Discoveries with major contributions by amateur astronomers"], "text": "(-) [[Cygnus A]] (1939) is a radio galaxy and one of the strongest radio sources on the sky. (-) Dramatic period decrease in [[T Ursae Minoris]] using [[AAVSO]] observations (1995) (-) [[McNeil's Nebula]] (2004) is a variable nebula (-) [[XO-1b]] (2006) is an exoplanet (-) tidal streams around [[NGC 5907]] (2008) (-) [[Hanny's Voorwerp|Voorwerpjes]] (2009) is a type of quasar ionization echo. (-) [[Pea galaxy|Pea Galaxies]] (2009) are a type of galaxy. (-) Most recent (2010) outburst of [[U Scorpii]] (-) [[Kronberger 61]] (2011) is a planetary nebula. (-) [[List of spiral DRAGNs|Speca]] (2011) is a spiral galaxy containing contain [[DRAGN]] (Double Radio-source Associated with Galactic Nucleus). (-) [[2011 HM102]] (2013) is a [[Neptune trojan|Neptune Trojan]]. (-) [[PH1b]] (2013) is an extrasolar planet in a circumbinary orbit in a quadruple star system. (-) [[Kepler-86|PH2b]] (2013) is an extrasolar gas giant planet located in its parent star's habitable zone. (-) [[List of spiral DRAGNs|J1649+2635]] (2014) is a spiral galaxy containing contain DRAGNs (Double Radio-source Associated with Galactic Nucleus). (-) [[Yellowballs]] (2015) are a type of compact star-forming region. (-) [[9Spitch]] (2015) is a distant gravitationally lensed galaxy with high star-forming rate. (-) [[Sculptor Galaxy#Satellite|NGC 253-dw2]] (2016) is a dwarf spheroidal (dSph) galaxy candidate undergoing [[Tidal force|tidal disruption]] around the nearby galaxy NGC 253. The galaxy was discovered by an amateur astronomer with a small-aperture amateur telescope. (-) [[Tabby's Star|KIC 8462852]] (2016) is an F-type star showing unusual dimming events. (-) [[HD 74389]] (2016) contains a debris disk. It is the first debris disk discovered around a star with a companion [[white dwarf]]. (-) [[AWI0005x3s]] (2016) is the oldest M-dwarf with a debris disk detected in a moving group at the time of the discovery. (-) [[PSR J1913+1102]] (2016) is a binary neutron star with the highest total mass at the time of the discovery. (-) [[Donatiello I]] (2016) a nearby spheroidal dwarf galaxy discovered by the Italian amateur astronomer Giuseppe Donatiello. It is also the first galaxy to be named after an amateur astronomer. (-) [[Exocomet#Observation|Transiting Exocomets]] (2017) are comets in an extrasolar system blocking some of the starlight while transiting in front of the extra-solar star. (-) [[K2-138]] (2018) is a planetary system with five confirmed planets in an unbroken 3:2-resonance chain. (-) [[NGC 613|Supernova 2016gkg]] (2018) was observed by an amateur astronomer shortly after it began to erupt. (-) [[PSR J1744−7619]] (2018) is the first Pulsar to be detected only in gamma-rays and not in radio-waves. (-) [[Steve (atmospheric phenomenon)|STEVE]] (2018) is an atmospheric phenomenon. (-) [[K2-288Bb]] (2019) is an extrasolar planet in the habitable zone around a M-star, which belongs to a binary system. (-) [[LSPM J0207+3331]] (2019) is an old white dwarf containing a debris disk with two components. (-) [[2I/Borisov|Interstellar Comet 2I/Borisov]] (2019) is the first interstellar comet. (-) [[Kojima-1Lb]] (confirmed in 2019) is a Neptune-sized exoplanet discovered by an amateur astronomer with the [[Gravitational microlensing|microlensing]] method. Kojima-1 is the brightest microlensing host discovered.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Discoveries with major contributions by amateur astronomers"], "text": "(-) [[W2150AB|WISE2150-7520AB]] (2019/2020) is a pair of [[brown dwarf]] with the lowest binding energy at a total mass smaller than 0.1 solar masses not associated with a young cluster. (-) GJ 3470 c (2020) is the first exoplanet candidate completely discovered by amateurs. Unlike Peter Jalowiczor, Kojima-1Lb and XO-1b, GJ 3470 c was fully discovered by an amateur in a project led by amateur astronomers. (-) Pisces VII/Triangulum IIII (Psc VIII/Tri III) is an ultrafaint dwarf galaxy in Messier 31 system, a possible satellite of Messier 33. It is the second discovery credited to the Italian amateur astronomer Giuseppe Donatiello, already discoverer of the dwarf galaxy Donatiello I.", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": ["Prizes recognizing amateur astronomers"], "text": "(-) [[Amateur Achievement Award of Astronomical Society of the Pacific]] (-) [[Chambliss Amateur Achievement Award]]", "id": "748", "title": "Amateur astronomy", "categories": ["Amateur astronomy", "Articles containing video clips", "Citizen science"], "seealso": ["List of astronomical societies", "Astronomical object", "Skygazing", "Star party", "Observational astronomy", "Sidewalk astronomy", "Caldwell catalogue", "Clear Sky Chart", "Observation", "List of telescope parts and construction", "Messier catalogue"]}
{"headers": [], "text": ", is a [[gendai budō|modern]] [[Japanese martial art]] that is split into many different styles, including [[Iwama Ryu]], [[Iwama Shin Shin Aiki Shuren Kai]], [[Shodokan Aikido]], [[Yoshinkan]], [[Aikikai]] and [[Ki Aikido]]. Aikido is now practiced in around 140 countries. It was originally developed by [[Morihei Ueshiba]], as a synthesis of his martial studies, philosophy and religious beliefs. Ueshiba's goal was to create an art that practitioners could use to defend themselves while also protecting their attackers from injury. Aikido is often translated as \"the way of unifying (with) [[Qi|life energy]]\" or as \"the way of harmonious spirit\". According to the founder's philosophy, the primary goal in the practice of aikido is to overcome oneself instead of cultivating violence or aggressiveness. Morihei Ueshiba used the phrase (\"true victory, final victory over oneself, here and now\") to refer to this principle. Aikido's fundamental principles include: [[irimi]] (entering), [[atemi]], (breathing control), (triangular principle) and [[tenkan]] (turning) movements that redirect the opponent's attack [[momentum]]. Its curriculum comprises various techniques, primarily [[Throw (grappling)|throw]] and [[joint lock]]. It also includes a weapons system encompassing the ''[[bokken]]'', ''[[tantō]]'' and ''[[jō]]''. Aikido derives mainly from the martial art of [[Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu]], but began to diverge from it in the late 1920s, partly due to Ueshiba's involvement with the [[Ōmoto-kyō]] religion. Ueshiba's early students' documents bear the term . Ueshiba's senior students have different approaches to aikido, depending partly on when they studied with him. Today, aikido is found all over the world in a number of styles, with broad ranges of interpretation and emphasis. However, they all share techniques formulated by Ueshiba and most have concern for the well-being of the attacker.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Etymology and basic philosophy"], "text": "The word \"aikido\" is formed of three [[kanji]]: (-) – ''ai'' – harmony, unifying (-) – ''ki'' – energy, spirit (-) – ''dō'' – way, path The term ''[[Aiki (martial arts principle)|aiki]]'' does not readily appear in the Japanese language outside the scope of [[budō]]. This has led to many possible interpretations of the word. is mainly used in compounds to mean 'combine, unite, join together, meet', examples being (combined/united), (composition), (unite/combine/join together), (union/alliance/association), (combine/unify), and (mutual agreement). There is an idea of [[Norm of reciprocity|reciprocity]], (to get to know one another), (talk/discussion/negotiation), and (meet by appointment). is often used to describe a feeling or emotive action, as in ('I feel X', as in terms of thinking but with less cognitive reasoning), and (feeling/sensation); it is used to mean energy or force, as in (electricity) and (magnetism); it can also refer to qualities or aspects of people or things, as in (spirit/trait/temperament). The characters aeteological history can be traced back to the much older Chinese character of qi [[Qi|氣]] that is used extensively in [[Traditional Chinese medicine]] and [[Acupuncture|acupunture]]. The term in Aikido is derived from the word [[Tao]], 道 in Chinese, and is found in many other Japanese martial arts such as, [[judo]] and [[kendo]], and in various non-martial arts, such as [[Japanese calligraphy]] (), [[ikebana|flower arranging]] () and [[Japanese tea ceremony|tea ceremony]] (). Therefore, from a purely literal interpretation, aikido is the \"Way of combining forces\" or \"Way of unifying energy\", in which the term ''aiki'' refers to the martial arts principle or tactic of blending with an attacker's movements for the purpose of controlling their actions with minimal effort. One applies by understanding the rhythm and intent of the attacker to find the optimal position and timing to apply a counter-technique.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "Aikido was created by Morihei Ueshiba ( , 1883–1969), referred to by some aikido practitioners as (''Great Teacher''). The term ''aikido'' was coined in the twentieth century. Ueshiba envisioned aikido not only as the synthesis of his martial training, but as an expression of his personal philosophy of universal peace and reconciliation. During Ueshiba's lifetime and continuing today, aikido has evolved from the that Ueshiba studied into a variety of expressions by martial artists throughout the world.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History", "Initial development"], "text": "Ueshiba developed aikido primarily during the late 1920s through the 1930s through the synthesis of the older martial arts that he had studied. The core martial art from which aikido derives is [[Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu]], which Ueshiba studied directly with [[Takeda Sōkaku]], the reviver of that art. Additionally, Ueshiba is known to have studied [[Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū]] with Tozawa Tokusaburō in [[Tokyo]] in 1901, [[Yagyū Shingan-ryū|Gotōha Yagyū Shingan-ryū]] under Nakai Masakatsu in [[Sakai, Osaka|Sakai]] from 1903 to 1908, and [[judo]] with Kiyoichi Takagi ( , 1894–1972) in [[Tanabe]] in 1911. The art of is the primary technical influence on aikido. Along with empty-handed throwing and joint-locking techniques, Ueshiba incorporated training movements with weapons, such as those for the [[spear]] (), short [[Stick fighting|staff]] (), and possibly the . Aikido also derives much of its technical structure from the art of swordsmanship (). Ueshiba moved to [[Hokkaidō]] in 1912, and began studying under Takeda Sokaku in 1915; His official association with Daitō-ryū continued until 1937. However, during the latter part of that period, Ueshiba had already begun to distance himself from Takeda and the . At that time Ueshiba referred to his martial art as \"'''Aiki Budō'''\". It is unclear exactly when Ueshiba began using the name \"aikido\", but it became the official name of the art in 1942 when the Greater Japan Martial Virtue Society () was engaged in a government sponsored reorganization and centralization of Japanese martial arts.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History", "Religious influences"], "text": "After Ueshiba left Hokkaidō in 1919, he met and was profoundly influenced by [[Onisaburo Deguchi]], the spiritual leader of the [[Ōmoto-kyō]] religion (a neo-[[Shinto]] movement) in [[Ayabe]]. One of the primary features of Ōmoto-kyō is its emphasis on the attainment of [[utopia]] during one's life. This idea was a great influence on Ueshiba's martial arts philosophy of extending love and compassion especially to those who seek to harm others. Aikido demonstrates this philosophy in its emphasis on mastering martial arts so that one may receive an attack and harmlessly redirect it. In an ideal resolution, not only is the receiver unharmed, but so is the attacker. In addition to the effect on his spiritual growth, the connection with Deguchi gave Ueshiba entry to elite political and military circles as a martial artist. As a result of this exposure, he was able to attract not only financial backing but also gifted students. Several of these students would found their own styles of aikido.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History", "International dissemination"], "text": "Aikido was first introduced to the rest of the world in 1951 by [[Minoru Mochizuki]] with a visit to [[France]], where he demonstrated aikido techniques to judo students. He was followed by [[Tadashi Abe]] in 1952, who came as the official [[Aikikai]] Hombu representative, remaining in France for seven years. [[Kenji Tomiki]] toured with a delegation of various martial arts through 15 continental states of the United States in 1953. Later that year, [[Koichi Tohei]] was sent by Aikikai Hombu to [[Hawaii]] for a full year, where he set up several [[dōjō]]. This trip was followed by several subsequent visits and is considered the formal introduction of aikido to the United States. The United Kingdom followed in 1955; Italy in 1964 by [[Hiroshi Tada]]; and Germany in 1965 by [[Katsuaki Asai]]. Designated the \"Official Delegate for Europe and Africa\" by Morihei Ueshiba, [[Masamichi Noro]] arrived in France in September 1961. [[Seiichi Sugano]] was appointed to introduce aikido to Australia in 1965. Today there are aikido dōjō throughout the world.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History", "Proliferation of independent organizations"], "text": "The largest aikido organization is the [[Aikikai Foundation]], which remains under the control of the Ueshiba family. However, aikido has developed into many styles, most of which were formed by Morihei Ueshiba's major students. The earliest independent styles to emerge were [[Yoseikan Aikido]], begun by [[Minoru Mochizuki]] in 1931, [[Yoshinkan]] Aikido, founded by [[Gozo Shioda]] in 1955, and [[Shodokan Aikido]], founded by [[Kenji Tomiki]] in 1967. The emergence of these styles pre-dated Ueshiba's death and did not cause any major upheavals when they were formalized. Shodokan Aikido, however, was controversial, since it introduced a unique rule-based competition that some felt was contrary to the spirit of aikido. After Ueshiba's death in 1969, two more major styles emerged. Significant controversy arose with the departure of the [[Aikikai Hombu Dojo]]'s chief instructor [[Koichi Tohei]], in 1974. Tohei left as a result of a disagreement with the son of the founder, [[Kisshomaru Ueshiba]], who at that time headed the Aikikai Foundation. The disagreement was over the proper role of development in regular aikido training. After Tohei left, he formed his own style, called [[Shin Shin Toitsu Aikido]], and the organization that governs it, the [[Ki Society]] (). A final major style evolved from Ueshiba's retirement in [[Iwama, Ibaraki]] and the teaching methodology of long term student [[Morihiro Saito]]. It is unofficially referred to as the \"[[Iwama style]]\", and at one point a number of its followers formed a loose network of schools they called [[Iwama Ryu]]. Although Iwama style practitioners remained part of the Aikikai until Saito's death in 2002, followers of Saito subsequently split into two groups. One remained with the Aikikai and the other formed the independent [[Shinshin Aikishuren Kai]] in 2004 around Saito's son [[Hitohiro Saito]]. Today, the major styles of aikido are each run by a separate governing organization, have their own in Japan, and are taught throughout the world.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ki"], "text": "The study of ''[[Qi|ki]]'' is an important component of aikido. The term does not specifically refer to either physical or mental training, as it encompasses both. The ''[[kanji]]'' for was written in its older form as up until the Japanese governmental [[Tōyō kanji|writing reforms after World War II]], and now is more prevalently seen in its modern form of . This form has the removal of the eight directions denoting the pre and post natal energies of genki 元氣(Chinese – [[Yuanqi|yuán ''qì'']] ) also known in the Art of Aikido as \"Source energy\". The character for is used in everyday Japanese terms, such as , or . has many meanings, including \"ambience\", \"mind\", \"mood\", or \"intention and action\", however, in traditional martial arts and medicine it is often referred to in its more general terminology as \"life energy\". [[Gozo Shioda]]'s [[Yoshinkan]] Aikido, considered one of the \"hard styles\", largely follows Ueshiba's teachings from before World War II, and surmises that the secret to lies in timing and the application of the whole body's strength to a single point. In later years, Ueshiba's application of in aikido took on a softer, more gentle feel. This concept was known as [[Takemusu]] Aiki, and many of his later students teach about from this perspective. [[Koichi Tohei]]'s [[Ki Society]] centers almost exclusively around the study of the [[empirical]] (albeit subjective) experience of , with students' proficiency in aikido techniques and development ranked separately.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training"], "text": "In aikido, as in virtually all Japanese [[martial arts]], there are both physical and mental aspects of training. The physical training in aikido is diverse, covering both general physical fitness and [[Exercise|conditioning]], as well as specific techniques. Because a substantial portion of any aikido curriculum consists of [[throw (grappling)|throws]], beginners learn how to safely fall or roll. The specific techniques for attack include both strikes and grabs; the techniques for defense consist of throws and [[Pinning hold|pins]]. After basic techniques are learned, students study freestyle defense against multiple opponents, and techniques with weapons.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training", "Fitness"], "text": "Physical training goals pursued in conjunction with aikido include controlled [[relaxation technique|relaxation]], correct movement of joints such as hips and shoulders, [[flexibility (anatomy)|flexibility]], and [[endurance]], with less emphasis on [[strength training]]. In aikido, pushing or extending movements are much more common than pulling or contracting movements. This distinction can be applied to general fitness goals for the aikido practitioner. In aikido, specific muscles or muscle groups are not isolated and worked to improve tone, mass, or power. Aikido-related training emphasizes the use of coordinated whole-body movement and balance similar to [[yoga as exercise|yoga]] or [[pilates]]. For example, many dōjōs begin each class with , which may include [[stretching]] and [[Uke (martial arts)|ukemi]] (break falls).", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training", "Roles of ''uke'' and ''tori''"], "text": "Aikido training is based primarily on two partners practicing pre-arranged forms (''[[kata]]'') rather than freestyle practice. The basic pattern is for the receiver of the technique (''[[uke (martial arts)|uke]]'') to initiate an attack against the person who applies the technique—the ''[[Tori (martial arts)|tori]]'', or (depending on aikido style), also referred to as (when applying a throwing technique), who neutralises this attack with an aikido technique. Both halves of the technique, that of and that of , are considered essential to aikido training. Both are studying aikido principles of blending and adaptation. learns to blend with and control attacking energy, while learns to become calm and flexible in the disadvantageous, off-balance positions in which places them. This \"receiving\" of the technique is called . continuously seeks to regain balance and cover vulnerabilities (e.g., an exposed side), while uses position and timing to keep off-balance and vulnerable. In more advanced training, will sometimes apply to regain balance and pin or throw . refers to the act of receiving a technique. Good involves attention to the technique, the partner, and the immediate environment—it is considered an active part of the process of learning aikido. The method of falling itself is also important, and is a way for the practitioner to receive an aikido technique safely and minimize risk of injury.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training", "Initial attacks"], "text": "Aikido techniques are usually a defense against an attack, so students must learn to deliver various types of attacks to be able to practice aikido with a partner. Although attacks are not studied as thoroughly as in striking-based arts, attacks with intent (such as a strong strike or an immobilizing grab) are needed to study correct and effective application of technique. Many of the of aikido resemble cuts from a [[sword]] or other grasped object, which indicate its origins in techniques intended for [[weapon|armed]] combat. Other techniques, which explicitly appear to be punches (''[[tsuki]]''), are practiced as thrusts with a [[knife]] or sword. [[Kick]] are generally reserved for upper-level variations; reasons cited include that falls from kicks are especially dangerous, and that kicks (high kicks in particular) were uncommon during the types of combat prevalent in feudal Japan. Some basic strikes include: (-) is a vertical [[knifehand strike]] to the head. In training, this is usually directed at the forehead or the [[Crown (anatomy)|crown]] for safety, but more dangerous versions of this attack target the bridge of the nose and the [[maxillary sinus]]. (-) is a diagonal knifehand strike to the side of the head or neck. (-) is a [[Punch (strike)|punch]] to the [[torso]]. Specific targets include the [[chest]], [[abdomen]], and [[solar plexus]], sometimes referred to as , or . (-) is a punch to the [[face]], sometimes referred to as . Beginners in particular often practice techniques from grabs, both because they are safer and because it is easier to feel the energy and the direction of the movement of force of a hold than it is for a strike. Some grabs are historically derived from being held while trying to draw a [[Katana|weapon]], whereupon a technique could then be used to free oneself and immobilize or strike the attacker while they are grabbing the defender. The following are examples of some basic grabs: (-) , when one hand grabs one wrist. (-) , when both hands grab one wrist; sometimes referred to as (-) , when both hands grab both wrists; sometimes referred to as . (-) when one shoulder is grabbed. (-) , when both shoulders are grabbed. It is sometimes combined with an overhead strike as . (-) , when the lapel is grabbed; sometimes referred to as .", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training", "Basic techniques"], "text": "The following are a sample of the basic or widely practiced throws and pins. Many of these techniques derive from Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, but some others were invented by Morihei Ueshiba. The precise terminology for some may vary between organisations and styles; the following are the terms used by the Aikikai Foundation. Note that despite the names of the first five techniques listed, they are not universally taught in numeric order. (-) , a control technique using one hand on the elbow and one hand near the wrist which [[lever]] ''uke'' to the ground. This grip applies pressure into the [[ulnar nerve]] at the wrist. (-) is a [[Kote mawashi|pronating wristlock]] that torques the arm and applies painful nerve pressure. (There is an [[Wristlock#Adductive wristlock|adductive wristlock]] or Z-lock in the version.) (-) is a [[Wristlock#Rotational wristlock|rotational wristlock]] that directs upward-spiraling tension throughout the arm, elbow and shoulder. (-) is a shoulder control technique similar to , but with both hands gripping the forearm. The knuckles (from the palm side) are applied to the recipient's [[radial nerve]] against the [[periosteum]] of the forearm bone. (-) is a technique that is visually similar to , but with an inverted grip of the wrist, [[medial rotation]] of the arm and shoulder, and downward pressure on the elbow. Common in [[knife]] and other weapon take-aways. (-) '''''' is a throw during which 's hand is folded back past the shoulder, locking the shoulder joint. (-) is a [[Kote gaeshi|supinating]] wristlock-throw that stretches the [[extensor digitorum]]. (-) is a loosely used umbrella term for various types of mechanically unrelated techniques; generally do not use joint locks like other techniques. (-) , throws in which moves through the space occupied by . The classic form superficially resembles a \"clothesline\" technique. (-) , a throw in which, beginning with , moving forward, sweeps one hand low (\"earth\") and the other high (\"heaven\"), which unbalances so that he or she easily topples over. (-) , aikido's version of the [[throw (grappling)#Hip throws|hip throw]]; drops their hips lower than those of , then flips over the resultant [[Lever|fulcrum]]. (-) or , a throw that locks the arms against each other (the [[kanji]] for \"10\" is a cross-shape: 十). (-) is a throw in which sweeps 's arm back until it locks the shoulder joint, then uses forward pressure to throw them.''''", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training", "Implementations"], "text": "Aikido makes use of body movement (''[[tai sabaki]]'') to blend the movement of with the movement of . For example, an \"entering\" (''[[irimi]]'') technique consists of movements inward towards , while a technique uses a pivoting motion. Additionally, an technique takes place in front of , whereas an technique takes place to their side; a technique is applied with motion to the front of , and a version is applied with motion towards the rear of , usually by incorporating a turning or pivoting motion. Finally, most techniques can be performed while in a seated posture (''[[seiza]]''). Techniques where both and are standing are called , techniques where both start off in are called , and techniques performed with standing and sitting are called (). From these few basic techniques, there are numerous of possible implementations. For example, can be applied to an opponent moving forward with a strike (perhaps with an type of movement to redirect the incoming force), or to an opponent who has already struck and is now moving back to reestablish distance (perhaps an version). Specific aikido are typically referred to with the formula \"attack-technique(-modifier)\"; , for example, refers to any technique executed when is holding one wrist. This could be further specified as (referring to any forward-moving technique from that grab). ''[[Atemi]]'' () are strikes (or [[feint]]) employed during an aikido technique. Some view as attacks against \"[[pressure point|vital points]]\" meant to cause damage in and of themselves. For instance, [[Gozo Shioda]] described using in a brawl to quickly down a gang's leader. Others consider , especially to the face, to be methods of distraction meant to enable other techniques; a strike, even if it is blocked, can startle the target and break their concentration. Additionally, the target may also become unbalanced while attempting to avoid a strike (by jerking the head back, for example) which may allow for an easier throw. Many sayings about are attributed to Morihei Ueshiba, who considered them an essential element of technique.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training", "Weapons"], "text": "[[Image:PRehse002-cropped.jpg|right|thumb|Disarming an attacker using a technique]] Weapons training in aikido traditionally includes the short staff (''[[jō]]'') (these techniques closely resemble the use of the bayonet, or [[Jūkendō]]), the wooden sword (''[[bokken]]''), and the knife (''[[tantō]]''). Some schools incorporate firearm-disarming techniques, where either weapon-taking and/or weapon-retention may be taught. Some schools, such as the [[Iwama style]] of [[Morihiro Saito]], usually spend substantial time practicing with both and , under the names of ''[[aiki-ken]]'', and ''[[aiki-jō]]'', respectively. The founder developed many of the empty-handed techniques from traditional sword, spear and bayonet movements. Consequently, the practice of the weapons arts gives insight into the origin of techniques and movements, and reinforces the concepts of distance, timing, foot movement, presence and connectedness with one's training partner(s).", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training", "Multiple attackers and ''randori''"], "text": "One feature of aikido is training to defend against multiple attackers, often called , or . Freestyle practice with multiple attackers called ''[[randori]]'' () is a key part of most curricula and is required for the higher-level ranks. exercises a person's ability to intuitively perform techniques in an unstructured environment. Strategic choice of techniques, based on how they reposition the student relative to other attackers, is important in training. For instance, an technique might be used to neutralise the current attacker while turning to face attackers approaching from behind. In [[Shodokan Aikido]], differs in that it is not performed with multiple persons with defined roles of defender and attacker, but between two people, where both participants attack, defend, and counter at will. In this respect it resembles judo .", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training", "Injuries"], "text": "In applying a technique during training, it is the responsibility of to prevent injury to by employing a speed and force of application that is appropriate with their partner's proficiency in . When injuries (especially to the joints) occur, they are often the result of a misjudging the ability of to receive the throw or pin. A study of injuries in the martial arts showed that the type of injuries varied considerably from one art to the other. Soft tissue injuries are one of the most common types of injuries found within aikido, as well as joint strain and stubbed fingers and toes. Several deaths from head-and-neck injuries, caused by aggressive in a [[Senpai and kōhai|senpai/kōhai]] hazing context, have been reported.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Training", "Mental training"], "text": "Aikido training is mental as well as physical, emphasizing the ability to relax the mind and body even under the stress of dangerous situations. This is necessary to enable the practitioner to perform the 'enter-and-blend' movements that underlie aikido techniques, wherein an attack is met with confidence and directness. Morihei Ueshiba once remarked that one \"must be willing to receive 99% of an opponent's attack and stare death in the face\" in order to execute techniques without hesitation. As a martial art concerned not only with fighting proficiency but with the betterment of daily life, this mental aspect is of key importance to aikido practitioners.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Uniforms and ranking"], "text": "Aikido practitioners (commonly called outside Japan) generally progress by promotion through a series of \"grades\" (''[[kyū]]''), followed by a series of \"degrees\" (''[[dan (rank)|dan]]''), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some aikido organizations use belts to distinguish practitioners' grades, often simply white and [[Black belt (martial arts)|black belts]] to distinguish and grades, although some use various belt colors. Testing requirements vary, so a particular rank in one organization is not comparable or interchangeable with the rank of another. Some dōjōs have an age requirement before students can take the rank exam. The uniform worn for practicing aikido (''[[Keikogi|aikidōgi]]'') is similar to the training uniform (''[[keikogi]]'') used in most other modern martial arts; simple trousers and a wraparound jacket, usually white. Both thick (\"[[judo]]-style\"), and thin (\"[[karate]]-style\") cotton tops are used. Aikido-specific tops are available with shorter sleeves which reach to just below the elbow. Most aikido systems add a pair of wide pleated black or [[indigo]] trousers called a ''[[hakama]]'' (used also in [[Naginatajutsu]], [[kendo]], and [[iaido]]). In many schools, its use is reserved for practitioners with ranks or for instructors, while others allow all practitioners to wear a regardless of rank.", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Aikido styles"], "text": "[[Aikido styles]] vary in their intention as due to its holistic nature. The most common differences noted in aikido, when observed externally, relate to the intensity and realism of training. [[Stanley Pranin]] has observed that some criticism may stem from weak attacks from , allowing for a conditioned response from , resulting in underdevelopment of the skills needed for the safe and effective practice of both partners. To counteract this, some styles allow students to become less compliant over time, but, in keeping with the core philosophies, this is after having demonstrated proficiency in being able to protect themselves and their training partners. [[Shodokan Aikido]] addresses the issue by practicing in a competitive format. Conversely other post-war styles emphasis spiritual development, enlightenment, peace studies, or the study of traditional medicine for health studies. Reasons for the difference and diversity of teachings, intention, and forms of aikido can be traced to the shift in training focus after the end of Ueshiba's seclusion in Iwama from 1942 to the mid-1950s, as he increasingly emphasized the spiritual and philosophical aspects of aikido. As a result, strikes to vital points by , entering () and initiation of techniques by , the distinction between (front side) and (back side) techniques, and the use of weapons, were all de-emphasized or eliminated from practice. Conversely, some styles of aikido place less importance on the spiritual practices emphasized by Ueshiba. According to Minoru Shibata of ''Aikido Journal'': \"O-Sensei's aikido was not a continuation and extension of the old and has a distinct discontinuity with past martial and philosophical concepts.\" In other words, aikido practitioners who focus on aikido's roots in traditional ''[[jujutsu]]'' or ''[[kenjutsu]]'' are said to be diverging from what Ueshiba taught, as some critics urge practitioners: \"[Ueshiba's] transcendence to the spiritual and universal reality were the fundamentals of the paradigm that he demonstrated.\"", "id": "751", "title": "Aikido", "categories": ["Aikido", "Japanese martial arts", "Dō", "Articles containing video clips"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Art''' is a diverse range of (products of) [[human behavior|human activities]] involving creative [[imagination]] to express technical proficiency, beauty, emotional power, or [[concept]] [[idea]]. There is no generally agreed definition of what constitutes art, and ideas have changed over time. The three classical branches of [[visual art]] are [[painting]], [[sculpture]], and [[architecture]]. [[Theatre]], [[dance]], and other [[performing arts]], as well as [[literature]], [[music]], [[film]] and other media such as [[interactive media]], are included in a broader definition of [[the arts]]. Until the 17th century, ''art'' referred to any skill or mastery and was not differentiated from [[craft]] or [[sciences]]. In modern usage after the 17th century, where aesthetic considerations are paramount, the [[Fine art|fine arts]] are separated and distinguished from acquired skills in general, such as the [[decorative arts|decorative]] or [[applied arts]]. The nature of art and related concepts, such as creativity and [[Aesthetic interpretation|interpretation]], are explored in a branch of philosophy known as [[aesthetics]]. The resulting [[artworks]] are studied in the professional fields of [[art criticism]] and the [[art history|history of art]].", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Overview"], "text": "In the perspective of the history of art, artistic works have existed for almost as long as humankind: from early [[pre-historic art]] to [[contemporary art]]; however, some theorists feel that the typical concept of \"artistic works\" fits less well outside modern Western societies. One early sense of the definition of ''art'' is closely related to the older Latin meaning, which roughly translates to \"skill\" or \"craft\", as associated with words such as \"artisan\". English words derived from this meaning include ''artifact'', ''artificial'', ''artifice'', ''medical arts'', and ''military arts''. However, there are many other colloquial uses of the word, all with some relation to its [[etymology]]. Over time, philosophers like [[Plato]], [[Aristotle]], [[Socrates]] and [[Kant]], among others, questioned the meaning of art. Several dialogues in Plato tackle questions about art: Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the [[muses]], and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of divine madness (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the ''[[Phaedrus (Plato)|Phaedrus]] ''(265a–c), and yet in the ''[[Republic (Plato)|''Republic'']]'' wants to outlaw Homer's great poetic art, and laughter as well. In ''[[Ion (dialogue)|Ion]]'', Socrates gives no hint of the disapproval of Homer that he expresses in the ''Republic''. The dialogue ''Ion'' suggests that [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'' functioned in the ancient Greek world as the Bible does today in the modern Christian world: as divinely inspired literary art that can provide moral guidance, if only it can be properly interpreted. With regards to the literary art and the musical arts, Aristotle considered [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb]] poetry and music to be [[Mimesis|mimetic]] or imitative art, each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner. For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation—through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama. Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals. The more recent and specific sense of the word ''art'' as an abbreviation for ''creative art'' or ''fine art'' emerged in the early 17th century. Fine art refers to a skill used to express the artist's creativity, or to engage the audience's aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw the audience towards consideration of more refined or ''finer'' work of art.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Overview"], "text": "Within this latter sense, the word ''art'' may refer to several things: (i) a study of a creative skill, (ii) a process of using the creative skill, (iii) a product of the creative skill, or (iv) the audience's experience with the creative skill. The creative arts (''art'' as discipline) are a collection of disciplines which produce ''artworks'' (''art'' as objects) that are compelled by a personal drive (art as activity) and convey a message, mood, or symbolism for the perceiver to interpret (art as experience). Art is something that stimulates an individual's thoughts, emotions, beliefs, or ideas through the senses. Works of art can be explicitly made for this purpose or interpreted on the basis of images or objects. For some scholars, such as [[Kant]], the sciences and the arts could be distinguished by taking science as representing the domain of knowledge and the arts as representing the domain of the freedom of artistic expression. Often, if the skill is being used in a common or practical way, people will consider it a craft instead of art. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way, it may be considered [[commercial art]] instead of fine art. On the other hand, crafts and design are sometimes considered [[applied art]]. Some art followers have argued that the difference between fine art and applied art has more to do with value judgments made about the art than any clear definitional difference. However, even fine art often has goals beyond pure creativity and self-expression. The purpose of works of art may be to communicate ideas, such as in politically, spiritually, or philosophically motivated art; to create a sense of beauty (see [[aesthetics]]); to explore the nature of perception; for pleasure; or to generate strong [[emotion]]. The purpose may also be seemingly nonexistent.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Overview"], "text": "The nature of art has been described by philosopher [[Richard Wollheim]] as \"one of the most elusive of the traditional problems of human culture\". Art has been defined as a vehicle for the expression or communication of emotions and ideas, a means for exploring and appreciating [[Formalism (art)|formal elements]] for their own sake, and as ''[[mimesis]]'' or [[Representation (arts)|representation]]. Art as mimesis has deep roots in the philosophy of [[Aristotle]]. [[Leo Tolstoy]] identified art as a use of indirect means to communicate from one person to another. [[Benedetto Croce]] and [[R. G. Collingwood]] advanced the [[Idealism|idealist]] view that art expresses emotions, and that the work of art therefore essentially exists in the mind of the creator. The theory of art as form has its roots in the philosophy of [[Kant]], and was developed in the early 20th century by [[Roger Fry]] and [[Clive Bell]]. More recently, thinkers influenced by [[Martin Heidegger]] have interpreted art as the means by which a community develops for itself a medium for self-expression and interpretation. [[George Dickie (philosopher)|George Dickie]] has offered an [[institutional theory of art]] that defines a work of art as any artifact upon which a qualified person or persons acting on behalf of the social institution commonly referred to as \"the [[art world]]\" has conferred \"the status of candidate for appreciation\". Larry Shiner has described fine art as \"not an essence or a fate but something we have made. Art as we have generally understood it is a European invention barely two hundred years old.\" Art may be characterized in terms of [[mimesis]] (its representation of reality), narrative (storytelling), expression, communication of emotion, or other qualities. During the [[Romanticism|Romantic period]], art came to be seen as \"a special faculty of the human mind to be classified with religion and science\".", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "A shell engraved by ''[[Homo erectus]]'' was determined to be between 430,000 and 540,000 years old. A set of eight 130,000 years old white-tailed eagle talons bear cut marks and abrasion that indicate manipulation by neanderthals, possibly for using it as jewelry. A series of tiny, drilled snail shells about 75,000 years old—were discovered in a South African cave. Containers that may have been used to hold paints have been found dating as far back as 100,000 years. Sculptures, [[cave paintings]], rock paintings and [[petroglyphs]] from the [[Upper Paleolithic]] dating to roughly 40,000 years ago have been found, but the precise meaning of such art is often disputed because so little is known about the cultures that produced them. Many great traditions in art have a foundation in the art of one of the great ancient civilizations: [[Ancient Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[History of Iran|Persia]], India, China, Ancient Greece, Rome, as well as [[Inca civilization|Inca]], [[Maya civilization|Maya]], and [[Olmec]]. Each of these centers of early civilization developed a unique and characteristic style in its art. Because of the size and duration of these civilizations, more of their art works have survived and more of their influence has been transmitted to other cultures and later times. Some also have provided the first records of how artists worked. For example, this period of Greek art saw a veneration of the human physical form and the development of equivalent skills to show musculature, poise, beauty, and anatomically correct proportions. In [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] and [[Medieval art]] of the Western Middle Ages, much art focused on the expression of subjects about Biblical and religious culture, and used styles that showed the higher glory of a heavenly world, such as the use of gold in the background of paintings, or glass in mosaics or windows, which also presented figures in idealized, patterned (flat) forms. Nevertheless, a classical realist tradition persisted in small Byzantine works, and realism steadily grew in the art of [[Catholic Europe]]. [[Renaissance art]] had a greatly increased emphasis on the realistic depiction of the material world, and the place of humans in it, reflected in the corporeality of the human body, and development of a systematic method of [[graphical perspective]] to depict recession in a three-dimensional picture space.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "In the east, [[Islamic art]]'s rejection of [[iconography]] led to emphasis on [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric patterns]], [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]], and [[Islamic architecture|architecture]]. Further east, religion dominated artistic styles and forms too. India and Tibet saw emphasis on painted sculptures and dance, while religious painting borrowed many conventions from sculpture and tended to bright contrasting colors with emphasis on outlines. China saw the flourishing of many art forms: jade carving, bronzework, pottery (including the stunning [[terracotta army]] of Emperor Qin), poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, fiction, etc. Chinese styles vary greatly from era to era and each one is traditionally named after the ruling dynasty. So, for example, [[Tang dynasty]] paintings are monochromatic and sparse, emphasizing idealized landscapes, but [[Ming dynasty]] paintings are busy and colorful, and focus on telling stories via setting and composition. Japan names its styles after imperial dynasties too, and also saw much interplay between the styles of calligraphy and painting. [[Woodblock printing]] became important in Japan after the 17th century. The western [[Age of Enlightenment]] in the 18th century saw artistic depictions of physical and rational certainties of the clockwork universe, as well as politically revolutionary visions of a post-monarchist world, such as [[William Blake|Blake]]'s portrayal of Newton as a divine geometer, or [[Jacques-Louis David|David]]'s propagandistic paintings. This led to [[Romanticism|Romantic]] rejections of this in favor of pictures of the emotional side and individuality of humans, exemplified in the novels of [[Goethe]]. The late 19th century then saw a host of artistic movements, such as [[academic art]], [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]], [[impressionism]] and [[fauvism]] among others. The history of 20th-century art is a narrative of endless possibilities and the search for new standards, each being torn down in succession by the next. Thus the parameters of [[Impressionism]], [[Expressionism]], [[Fauvism]], [[Cubism]], [[Dadaism]], [[Surrealism]], etc. cannot be maintained very much beyond the time of their invention. Increasing [[globalization|global]] interaction during this time saw an equivalent influence of other cultures into Western art. Thus, Japanese woodblock prints (themselves influenced by Western Renaissance draftsmanship) had an immense influence on impressionism and subsequent development. Later, [[African art|African sculptures]] were taken up by Picasso and to some extent by [[Matisse]]. Similarly, in the 19th and 20th centuries the West has had huge impacts on Eastern art with originally western ideas like [[Communism]] and [[Post-Modernism]] exerting a powerful influence.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "[[Modernism]], the idealistic search for truth, gave way in the latter half of the 20th century to a realization of its unattainability. [[Theodor W. Adorno]] said in 1970, \"It is now taken for granted that nothing which concerns art can be taken for granted any more: neither art itself, nor art in relationship to the whole, nor even the right of art to exist.\" [[Relativism]] was accepted as an unavoidable truth, which led to the period of [[contemporary art]] and [[List of postmodern critics|postmodern criticism]], where cultures of the world and of history are seen as changing forms, which can be appreciated and drawn from only with [[skepticism]] and irony. Furthermore, the separation of cultures is increasingly blurred and some argue it is now more appropriate to think in terms of a global culture, rather than of regional ones. In ''[[The Origin of the Work of Art]]'', Martin Heidegger, a German philosopher and a seminal thinker, describes the essence of art in terms of the concepts of being and truth. He argues that art is not only a way of expressing the element of truth in a culture, but the means of creating it and providing a springboard from which \"that which is\" can be revealed. Works of art are not merely representations of the way things are, but actually produce a community's shared understanding. Each time a new artwork is added to any culture, the meaning of what it is to exist is inherently changed. Historically, art and artistic skills and ideas have often been spread through trade. An example of this is the [[Silk Road]], where Hellenistic, Iranian, Indian and Chinese influences could mix. Greco Buddhist art is one of the most vivid examples of this interaction. The meeting of different cultures and worldviews also influenced artistic creation. An example of this is the multicultural port metropolis of [[Trieste]] at the beginning of the 20th century, where James Joyce met writers from Central Europe and the artistic development of [[New York City]] as a cultural melting pot.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Forms, genres, media, and styles"], "text": "The creative arts are often divided into more specific categories, typically along perceptually distinguishable categories such as [[List of art mediums|media]], genre, [[Art movement|styles]], and form. '''''Art form''''' refers to the [[elements of art]] that are independent of its interpretation or significance. It covers the methods adopted by the artist and the physical [[Composition (visual arts)|composition]] of the artwork, primarily non-semantic aspects of the work (i.e., [[figurae]]), such as [[Color theory|color]], [[Contour drawing|contour]], [[Fourth dimension in art|dimension]], [[List of art mediums|medium]], [[melody]], [[Negative space|space]], [[Texture (painting)|texture]], and [[Lightness|value]]. Form may also include [[Visual design elements and principles#Principles of design|visual design principles]], such as arrangement, [[Formal balance|balance]], [[Contrast (vision)|contrast]], [[Emphasis (typography)|emphasis]], [[harmony]], [[Hierarchical proportion|proportion]], [[Principles of grouping|proximity]], and rhythm. In general there are three schools of philosophy regarding art, focusing respectively on form, content, and context. Extreme [[Formalism (art)|Formalism]] is the view that all aesthetic properties of art are formal (that is, part of the art form). Philosophers almost universally reject this view and hold that the properties and aesthetics of art extend beyond materials, techniques, and form. Unfortunately, there is little consensus on terminology for these informal properties. Some authors refer to subject matter and content – i.e., [[denotation]] and [[connotation]] – while others prefer terms like [[Meaning (semiotics)|meaning]] and significance. Extreme Intentionalism holds that [[authorial intent]] plays a decisive role in the meaning of a work of art, conveying the content or essential main idea, while all other interpretations can be discarded. It defines the subject as the persons or idea represented, and the content as the artist's experience of that subject. For example, the composition of [[Napoleon I on his Imperial Throne]] is partly borrowed from the [[Statue of Zeus at Olympia]]. As evidenced by the title, the subject is [[Napoleon]], and the content is [[Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres|Ingres]]'s representation of Napoleon as \"Emperor-God beyond time and space\". Similarly to extreme formalism, philosophers typically reject extreme intentionalism, because art may have multiple ambiguous meanings and authorial intent may be unknowable and thus irrelevant. Its restrictive interpretation is \"socially unhealthy, philosophically unreal, and politically unwise\". Finally, the developing theory of [[post-structuralism]] studies art's significance in a cultural context, such as the ideas, emotions, and reactions prompted by a work. The cultural context often reduces to the artist's techniques and intentions, in which case analysis proceeds along lines similar to formalism and intentionalism. However, in other cases historical and material conditions may predominate, such as religious and philosophical convictions, sociopolitical and economic structures, or even climate and geography. [[Art criticism]] continues to grow and develop alongside art.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Forms, genres, media, and styles", "Skill and craft"], "text": "Art can connote a sense of trained ability or mastery of a [[Media (arts)|medium]]. Art can also simply refer to the developed and efficient use of a [[language]] to convey meaning with immediacy or depth. Art can be defined as an act of expressing feelings, thoughts, and observations. There is an understanding that is reached with the material as a result of handling it, which facilitates one's thought processes. A common view is that the [[Wikt:epithet|epithet]] \"art\", particular in its elevated sense, requires a certain level of creative expertise by the artist, whether this be a demonstration of technical ability, an originality in stylistic approach, or a combination of these two. Traditionally skill of execution was viewed as a quality inseparable from art and thus necessary for its success; for [[Leonardo da Vinci]], art, neither more nor less than his other endeavors, was a manifestation of skill. [[Rembrandt]]'s work, now praised for its ephemeral virtues, was most admired by his contemporaries for its virtuosity. At the turn of the 20th century, the adroit performances of [[John Singer Sargent]] were alternately admired and viewed with skepticism for their manual fluency, yet at nearly the same time the artist who would become the era's most recognized and peripatetic iconoclast, [[Pablo Picasso]], was completing a traditional academic training at which he excelled. A common contemporary criticism of some [[modern art]] occurs along the lines of objecting to the apparent lack of skill or ability required in the production of the artistic object. In conceptual art, [[Marcel Duchamp]]'s \"[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]\" is among the first examples of pieces wherein the artist used found objects (\"ready-made\") and exercised no traditionally recognised set of skills. [[Tracey Emin]]'s ''My Bed'', or [[Damien Hirst]]'s ''The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living'' follow this example and also manipulate the mass media. Emin slept (and engaged in other activities) in her bed before placing the result in a gallery as work of art. Hirst came up with the conceptual design for the artwork but has left most of the eventual creation of many works to employed artisans. Hirst's celebrity is founded entirely on his ability to produce shocking concepts. The actual production in many conceptual and contemporary works of art is a matter of assembly of found objects. However, there are many modernist and contemporary artists who continue to excel in the skills of drawing and painting and in creating ''hands-on'' works of art.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Purpose"], "text": "Art has had a great number of different functions throughout its history, making its purpose difficult to abstract or quantify to any single concept. This does not imply that the purpose of Art is \"vague\", but that it has had many unique, different reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are provided in the following outline. The different purposes of art may be grouped according to those that are non-motivated, and those that are motivated (Lévi-Strauss).", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Purpose", "Non-motivated functions"], "text": "The non-motivated purposes of art are those that are integral to being human, transcend the individual, or do not fulfill a specific external purpose. In this sense, Art, as creativity, is something humans must do by their very nature (i.e., no other species creates art), and is therefore beyond utility. (1) '''[[fine arts|Basic human instinct for harmony, balance, rhythm]].''' Art at this level is not an action or an object, but an internal appreciation of balance and harmony (beauty), and therefore an aspect of being human beyond utility.Imitation, then, is one instinct of our nature. Next, there is the instinct for 'harmony' and rhythm, meters being manifestly sections of rhythm. Persons, therefore, starting with this natural gift developed by degrees their special aptitudes, till their rude improvisations gave birth to Poetry. – Aristotle (2) '''Experience of the mysterious.''' Art provides a way to experience one's self in relation to the universe. This experience may often come unmotivated, as one appreciates art, music or poetry.The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the source of all true art and science. – Albert Einstein (3) '''Expression of the imagination.''' Art provides a means to express the imagination in non-grammatic ways that are not tied to the formality of spoken or written language. Unlike words, which come in sequences and each of which have a definite meaning, art provides a range of forms, symbols and ideas with meanings that are malleable.Jupiter's eagle [as an example of art] is not, like logical (aesthetic) attributes of an object, the concept of the sublimity and majesty of creation, but rather something else—something that gives the imagination an incentive to spread its flight over a whole host of kindred representations that provoke more thought than admits of expression in a concept determined by words. They furnish an aesthetic idea, which serves the above rational idea as a substitute for logical presentation, but with the proper function, however, of animating the mind by opening out for it a prospect into a field of kindred representations stretching beyond its ken. – Immanuel Kant (4) '''Ritualistic and symbolic functions.''' In many cultures, art is used in rituals, performances and dances as a decoration or symbol. While these often have no specific utilitarian (motivated) purpose, anthropologists know that they often serve a purpose at the level of meaning within a particular culture. This meaning is not furnished by any one individual, but is often the result of many generations of change, and of a cosmological relationship within the culture.Most scholars who deal with rock paintings or objects recovered from prehistoric contexts that cannot be explained in utilitarian terms and are thus categorized as decorative, ritual or symbolic, are aware of the trap posed by the term 'art'. – Silva Tomaskova ", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Purpose", "Motivated functions"], "text": "Motivated purposes of art refer to intentional, conscious actions on the part of the artists or creator. These may be to bring about political change, to comment on an aspect of society, to convey a specific emotion or mood, to address personal psychology, to illustrate another discipline, to (with commercial arts) sell a product, or simply as a form of communication. (1) '''Communication.''' Art, at its simplest, is a form of communication. As most forms of communication have an intent or goal directed toward another individual, this is a motivated purpose. Illustrative arts, such as scientific illustration, are a form of art as communication. Maps are another example. However, the content need not be scientific. Emotions, moods and feelings are also communicated through art.[Art is a set of] artefacts or images with symbolic meanings as a means of communication. – Steve Mithen (2) '''Art as entertainment'''. Art may seek to bring about a particular emotion or mood, for the purpose of relaxing or entertaining the viewer. This is often the function of the art industries of Motion Pictures and Video Games. (3) '''The Avant-Garde. Art for political change.''' One of the defining functions of early 20th-century art has been to use visual images to bring about political change. Art movements that had this goal—[[Dadaism]], [[Surrealism]], [[Russian constructivism]], and [[Abstract Expressionism]], among others—are collectively referred to as the ''avant-garde'' arts.By contrast, the realistic attitude, inspired by positivism, from Saint Thomas Aquinas to Anatole France, clearly seems to me to be hostile to any intellectual or moral advancement. I loathe it, for it is made up of mediocrity, hate, and dull conceit. It is this attitude which today gives birth to these ridiculous books, these insulting plays. It constantly feeds on and derives strength from the newspapers and stultifies both science and art by assiduously flattering the lowest of tastes; clarity bordering on stupidity, a dog's life. – André Breton (Surrealism) (4) '''Art as a \"free zone\"''', removed from the action of the social censure. Unlike the [[avant-garde]] movements, which wanted to erase cultural differences in order to produce new universal values, [[contemporary art]] has enhanced its tolerance towards cultural differences as well as its critical and liberating functions (social inquiry, activism, subversion, deconstruction ...), becoming a more open place for research and experimentation. (5) '''Art for social inquiry, subversion or anarchy.''' While similar to art for political change, subversive or deconstructivist art may seek to question aspects of society without any specific political goal. In this case, the function of art may be simply to criticize some aspect of society. [[Graffiti#Uses|Graffiti art]] and other types of [[street art]] are graphics and images that are [[Spray painting|spray-painted]] or [[stencil]] on publicly viewable walls, buildings, buses, trains, and bridges, usually without permission. Certain art forms, such as graffiti, may also be illegal when they break laws (in this case vandalism).", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Purpose", "Motivated functions"], "text": "(6) '''Art for social causes.''' Art can be used to raise awareness for a large variety of causes. A number of art activities were aimed at raising awareness of [[autism]], cancer, [[human trafficking]], and a variety of other topics, such as ocean conservation, human rights in [[Darfur]], murdered and missing Aboriginal women, elder abuse, and pollution. [[Trashion]], using trash to make fashion, practiced by artists such as [[Marina DeBris]] is one example of using art to raise awareness about pollution. (7) '''Art for psychological and healing purposes.''' Art is also used by art therapists, psychotherapists and clinical psychologists as [[art therapy]]. The [[Art therapy#The Diagnostic Drawing Series (DDS)|Diagnostic Drawing Series]], for example, is used to determine the personality and emotional functioning of a patient. The end product is not the principal goal in this case, but rather a process of healing, through creative acts, is sought. The resultant piece of artwork may also offer insight into the troubles experienced by the subject and may suggest suitable approaches to be used in more conventional forms of psychiatric therapy. (8) '''Art for propaganda, or commercialism.''' Art is often utilized as a form of propaganda, and thus can be used to subtly influence popular conceptions or mood. In a similar way, art that tries to sell a product also influences mood and emotion. In both cases, the purpose of art here is to subtly manipulate the viewer into a particular emotional or psychological response toward a particular idea or object. (9) '''Art as a fitness indicator.''' It has been argued that the ability of the human brain by far exceeds what was needed for survival in the ancestral environment. One [[evolutionary psychology]] explanation for this is that the human brain and associated traits (such as artistic ability and creativity) are the human equivalent of the [[peacock]]'s tail. The purpose of the male peacock's extravagant tail has been argued to be to attract females (see also [[Fisherian runaway]] and [[handicap principle]]). According to this theory superior execution of art was evolutionarily important because it attracted mates. The functions of art described above are not mutually exclusive, as many of them may overlap. For example, art for the purpose of entertainment may also seek to sell a product, i.e. the movie or video game.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Public access"], "text": "Since ancient times, much of the finest art has represented a deliberate display of wealth or power, often achieved by using massive scale and expensive materials. Much art has been commissioned by political rulers or religious establishments, with more modest versions only available to the most wealthy in society. Nevertheless, there have been many periods where art of very high quality was available, in terms of ownership, across large parts of society, above all in cheap media such as pottery, which persists in the ground, and perishable media such as textiles and wood. In many different cultures, the [[ceramics of indigenous peoples of the Americas]] are found in such a wide range of graves that they were clearly not restricted to a [[social elite]], though other forms of art may have been. Reproductive methods such as [[Molding (process)|moulds]] made mass-production easier, and were used to bring high-quality [[Ancient Roman pottery]] and Greek [[Tanagra figurine]] to a very wide market. [[Cylinder seal]] were both artistic and practical, and very widely used by what can be loosely called the middle class in the [[Ancient Near East]]. Once [[coin]] were widely used, these also became an art form that reached the widest range of society. Another important innovation came in the 15th century in Europe, when [[printmaking]] began with small [[woodcut]], mostly religious, that were often very small and hand-colored, and affordable even by [[peasant]] who glued them to the walls of their homes. Printed books were initially very expensive, but fell steadily in price until by the 19th century even the poorest could afford some with printed illustrations. [[Popular prints]] of many different sorts have decorated homes and other places for centuries. In 1661, the city of [[Basel]], in [[Switzerland]], opened the first public museum of art in the world, the [[Kunstmuseum Basel]]. Today, its collection is distinguished by an impressively wide historic span, from the early 15th century up to the immediate present. Its various areas of emphasis give it international standing as one of the most significant museums of its kind. These encompass: paintings and drawings by artists active in the Upper Rhine region between 1400 and 1600, and on the art of the 19th to 21st centuries.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Public access"], "text": "[[Public art|Public buildings and monuments]], secular and religious, by their nature normally address the whole of society, and visitors as viewers, and display to the general public has long been an important factor in their design. [[Egyptian temple]] are typical in that the most largest and most lavish decoration was placed on the parts that could be seen by the general public, rather than the areas seen only by the priests. Many areas of royal palaces, castles and the houses of the social elite were often generally accessible, and large parts of the art collections of such people could often be seen, either by anybody, or by those able to pay a small price, or those wearing the correct clothes, regardless of who they were, as at the [[Palace of Versailles]], where the appropriate extra accessories (silver shoe buckles and a sword) could be hired from shops outside. Special arrangements were made to allow the public to see many royal or private collections placed in galleries, as with the [[Orleans Collection#Collection in Paris|Orleans Collection]] mostly housed in a wing of the [[Palais Royal]] in Paris, which could be visited for most of the 18th century. In Italy the art tourism of the [[Grand Tour]] became a major industry from the Renaissance onwards, and governments and cities made efforts to make their key works accessible. The British [[Royal Collection]] remains distinct, but large donations such as the [[Old Royal Library]] were made from it to the [[British Museum]], established in 1753. The [[Uffizi]] in [[Florence]] opened entirely as a gallery in 1765, though this function had been gradually taking the building over from the original civil servants' offices for a long time before. The building now occupied by the [[Prado]] in Madrid was built before the French Revolution for the public display of parts of the royal art collection, and similar royal galleries open to the public existed in [[Vienna]], Munich and other capitals. The opening of the [[Musée du Louvre]] during the [[French Revolution]] (in 1793) as a public museum for much of the former French royal collection certainly marked an important stage in the development of public access to art, transferring ownership to a republican state, but was a continuation of trends already well established. Most modern public museums and art education programs for children in schools can be traced back to this impulse to have art available to everyone. Museums in the United States tend to be gifts from the very rich to the masses. ([[The Metropolitan Museum of Art]] in New York City, for example, was created by [[John Taylor Johnston]], a railroad executive whose personal art collection seeded the museum.) But despite all this, at least one of the important functions of art in the 21st century remains as a marker of wealth and social status.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Public access"], "text": "There have been attempts by artists to create art that can not be bought by the wealthy as a status object. One of the prime original motivators of much of the art of the late 1960s and 1970s was to create art that could not be bought and sold. It is \"necessary to present something more than mere objects\" said the major post war German artist Joseph Beuys. This time period saw the rise of such things as performance art, [[video art]], and [[conceptual art]]. The idea was that if the artwork was a performance that would leave nothing behind, or was simply an idea, it could not be bought and sold. \"Democratic precepts revolving around the idea that a work of art is a commodity impelled the aesthetic innovation which germinated in the mid-1960s and was reaped throughout the 1970s. Artists broadly identified under the heading of Conceptual art ... substituting performance and publishing activities for engagement with both the material and materialistic concerns of painted or sculptural form ... [have] endeavored to undermine the art object qua object.\" In the decades since, these ideas have been somewhat lost as the art market has learned to sell limited edition DVDs of video works, invitations to exclusive performance art pieces, and the objects left over from conceptual pieces. Many of these performances create works that are only understood by the elite who have been educated as to why an idea or video or piece of apparent garbage may be considered art. The marker of status becomes understanding the work instead of necessarily owning it, and the artwork remains an upper-class activity. \"With the widespread use of DVD recording technology in the early 2000s, artists, and the gallery system that derives its profits from the sale of artworks, gained an important means of controlling the sale of video and computer artworks in limited editions to collectors.\"", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Controversies"], "text": "Art has long been controversial, that is to say disliked by some viewers, for a wide variety of reasons, though most pre-modern controversies are dimly recorded, or completely lost to a modern view. [[Iconoclasm]] is the destruction of art that is disliked for a variety of reasons, including religious ones. [[Aniconism]] is a general dislike of either all figurative images, or often just religious ones, and has been a thread in many major religions. It has been a crucial factor in the history of [[Islamic art]], where [[depictions of Muhammad]] remain especially controversial. Much art has been disliked purely because it depicted or otherwise stood for unpopular rulers, parties or other groups. Artistic conventions have often been conservative and taken very seriously by [[art critic]], though often much less so by a wider public. The [[iconography|iconographic]] content of art could cause controversy, as with late medieval depictions of the new motif of the [[Swoon of the Virgin]] in scenes of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus]]. [[The Last Judgment (Michelangelo)|The ''Last Judgment'']] by [[Michelangelo]] was controversial for various reasons, including breaches of [[decorum]] through nudity and the [[Apollo]]-like pose of Christ. The content of much formal art through history was dictated by the patron or commissioner rather than just the artist, but with the advent of [[Romanticism]], and economic changes in the production of art, the artists' vision became the usual determinant of the content of his art, increasing the incidence of controversies, though often reducing their significance. Strong incentives for perceived originality and publicity also encouraged artists to court controversy. [[Théodore Géricault]]'s ''[[The Raft of the Medusa|Raft of the Medusa]]'' (c. 1820), was in part a political commentary on a recent event. [[Édouard Manet]]'s ''[[The Luncheon on the Grass|Le Déjeuner sur l'Herbe]]'' (1863), was considered scandalous not because of the nude woman, but because she is seated next to men fully dressed in the clothing of the time, rather than in robes of the antique world. [[John Singer Sargent]]'s ''[[Portrait of Madame X|Madame Pierre Gautreau (Madam X)]]'' (1884), caused a controversy over the reddish pink used to color the woman's ear lobe, considered far too suggestive and supposedly ruining the high-society model's reputation. The gradual abandonment of naturalism and the depiction of realistic representations of the visual appearance of subjects in the 19th and 20th centuries led to a rolling controversy lasting for over a century. In the 20th century, [[Pablo Picasso]]'s ''[[Guernica (painting)|Guernica]]'' (1937) used arresting [[cubism|cubist]] techniques and stark [[Monochrome painting|monochromatic oils]], to depict the harrowing consequences of a contemporary bombing of a small, ancient Basque town. [[Leon Golub]]'s ''Interrogation III'' (1981), depicts a female nude, hooded detainee strapped to a chair, her legs open to reveal her sexual organs, surrounded by two tormentors dressed in everyday clothing. [[Andres Serrano]]'s ''[[Piss Christ]]'' (1989) is a photograph of a crucifix, sacred to the Christian religion and representing [[Jesus Christ|Christ]]'s sacrifice and final suffering, submerged in a glass of the artist's own urine. The resulting uproar led to comments in the United States Senate about public funding of the arts.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Theory"], "text": "Before Modernism, aesthetics in Western art was greatly concerned with achieving the appropriate balance between different aspects of [[Realism (arts)|realism or truth to nature]] and the [[Idealism|ideal]]; ideas as to what the appropriate balance is have shifted to and fro over the centuries. This concern is largely absent in other traditions of art. The aesthetic theorist [[John Ruskin]], who championed what he saw as the naturalism of [[J. M. W. Turner|J. M. W. Turner]], saw art's role as the communication by artifice of an essential truth that could only be found in nature. The definition and evaluation of art has become especially problematic since the 20th century. [[Richard Wollheim]] distinguishes three approaches to assessing the aesthetic value of art: the [[Aesthetic realism|Realist]], whereby aesthetic quality is an absolute value independent of any human view; the [[Objectivity (philosophy)|Objectivist]], whereby it is also an absolute value, but is dependent on general human experience; and the [[Relativist]] [[Aesthetic relativism|position]], whereby it is not an absolute value, but depends on, and varies with, the human experience of different humans.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Theory", "Arrival of Modernism"], "text": "The arrival of [[Modernism]] in the late 19th century lead to a radical break in the conception of the function of art, and then again in the late 20th century with the advent of [[Postmodern art|postmodernism]]. [[Clement Greenberg]]'s 1960 article \"Modernist Painting\" defines modern art as \"the use of characteristic methods of a discipline to criticize the discipline itself\". Greenberg originally applied this idea to the Abstract Expressionist movement and used it as a way to understand and justify flat (non-illusionistic) abstract painting: After Greenberg, several important art theorists emerged, such as [[Michael Fried]], [[T. J. Clark (historian)|T. J. Clark]], [[Rosalind Krauss]], [[Linda Nochlin]] and [[Griselda Pollock]] among others. Though only originally intended as a way of understanding a specific set of artists, Greenberg's definition of modern art is important to many of the ideas of art within the various art movements of the 20th century and early 21st century. [[Pop art]] like [[Andy Warhol]] became both noteworthy and influential through work including and possibly [[cultural critic|critiquing popular culture]], as well as the [[art world]]. Artists of the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s expanded this technique of self-criticism beyond ''high art'' to all cultural image-making, including fashion images, comics, billboards and pornography. Duchamp once proposed that art is any activity of any kind-everything. However, the way that only certain activities are classified today as art is a social construction. There is evidence that there may be an element of truth to this. In ''[[The Invention of Art: A Cultural History]]'', Larry Shiner examines the construction of the modern system of the arts, i.e. fine art. He finds evidence that the older system of the arts before our modern system (fine art) held art to be any skilled human activity; for example, Ancient Greek society did not possess the term art, but [[techne]]. Techne can be understood neither as art or craft, the reason being that the distinctions of art and [[craft]] are historical products that came later on in human history. Techne included painting, sculpting and music, but also cooking, medicine, [[horsemanship]], [[geometry]], carpentry, [[prophecy]], and farming, etc.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Theory", "New Criticism and the \"intentional fallacy\""], "text": "Following Duchamp during the first half of the 20th century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the [[New Criticism]] school and debate concerning ''the intentional fallacy''. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the intentions of the artist. In 1946, [[W. K. Wimsatt|William K. Wimsatt]] and [[Monroe Beardsley]] published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled \"[[Intentional Fallacy|The Intentional Fallacy]]\", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an [[Authorial intentionality|author's intention]], or \"intended meaning\" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting. In another essay, \"[[Affective fallacy|The Affective Fallacy]]\", which served as a kind of sister essay to \"The Intentional Fallacy\" Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the [[reader-response]] school of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, [[Stanley Fish]], was himself trained by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his 1970 essay \"Literature in the Reader\". As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay \"The Creation of Art\": \"Structuralist and post-structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical topic.\" These authors contend that: \"Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of the work.\" Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: \"Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works.\" They quote [[Richard Wollheim]] as stating that, \"The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art itself.\"", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Theory", "\"Linguistic turn\" and its debate"], "text": "The end of the 20th century fostered an extensive debate known as the [[linguistic turn]] controversy, or the \"innocent eye debate\" in the philosophy of art. This debate discussed the encounter of the work of art as being determined by the relative extent to which the conceptual encounter with the work of art dominates over the perceptual encounter with the work of art. Decisive for the linguistic turn debate in art history and the humanities were the works of yet another tradition, namely the [[structuralism]] of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] and the ensuing movement of [[poststructuralism]]. In 1981, the artist [[Mark Tansey]] created a work of art titled \"The Innocent Eye\" as a criticism of the prevailing climate of disagreement in the philosophy of art during the closing decades of the 20th century. Influential theorists include [[Judith Butler]], [[Luce Irigaray]], [[Julia Kristeva]], [[Michel Foucault]] and [[Jacques Derrida]]. The power of language, more specifically of certain rhetorical tropes, in art history and historical discourse was explored by [[Hayden White]]. The fact that language is ''not'' a transparent medium of thought had been stressed by a very different form of [[philosophy of language]] which originated in the works of [[Johann Georg Hamann]] and [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]. [[Ernst Gombrich]] and [[Nelson Goodman]] in his book ''[[Languages of Art]]: An Approach to a Theory of Symbols'' came to hold that the conceptual encounter with the work of art predominated exclusively over the perceptual and visual encounter with the work of art during the 1960s and 1970s. He was challenged on the basis of research done by the Nobel prize winning psychologist [[Roger Sperry]] who maintained that the human visual encounter was not limited to concepts represented in language alone (the linguistic turn) and that other forms of psychological representations of the work of art were equally defensible and demonstrable. Sperry's view eventually prevailed by the end of the 20th century with aesthetic philosophers such as [[Nick Zangwill]] strongly defending a return to moderate aesthetic formalism among other alternatives.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Classification disputes"], "text": " Disputes as to whether or not to classify something as a work of art are referred to as classificatory disputes about art. Classificatory disputes in the 20th century have included [[cubist]] and [[impressionist]] paintings, [[Duchamp]]'s ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'', the movies, superlative imitations of [[J. S. G. Boggs|banknotes]], [[conceptual art]], and [[video games]]. Philosopher David Novitz has argued that disagreement about the definition of art are rarely the heart of the problem. Rather, \"the passionate concerns and interests that humans vest in their social life\" are \"so much a part of all classificatory disputes about art.\" According to Novitz, classificatory disputes are more often disputes about societal values and where society is trying to go than they are about theory proper. For example, when the ''[[Daily Mail]]'' criticized [[Damien Hirst|Hirst]]'s and [[Tracey Emin|Emin]]'s work by arguing \"For 1,000 years art has been one of our great civilising forces. Today, pickled sheep and soiled beds threaten to make barbarians of us all\" they are not advancing a definition or theory about art, but questioning the value of Hirst's and Emin's work. In 1998, [[Arthur Danto]], suggested a thought experiment showing that \"the status of an artifact as work of art results from the ideas a culture applies to it, rather than its inherent physical or perceptible qualities. Cultural interpretation (an art theory of some kind) is therefore constitutive of an object's arthood.\" [[Anti-art]] is a label for art that intentionally challenges the established parameters and values of art; it is term associated with [[Dada]] and attributed to [[Marcel Duchamp]] just before World War I, when he was making art from [[found art|found objects]]. One of these, ''[[Fountain (Duchamp)|Fountain]]'' (1917), an ordinary urinal, has achieved considerable prominence and influence on art. Anti-art is a feature of work by [[Situationist International]], the lo-fi Mail art movement, and the [[Young British Artists]], though it is a form still rejected by the [[Stuckism|Stuckists]], who describe themselves as [[anti-anti-art]]. Architecture is often included as one of the visual arts; however, like the [[decorative arts]], or advertising, it involves the creation of objects where the practical considerations of use are essential in a way that they usually are not in a painting, for example.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Classification disputes", "Value judgment"], "text": "Somewhat in relation to the above, the word ''art'' is also used to apply judgments of value, as in such expressions as \"that meal was a work of art\" (the cook is an artist), or \"the art of deception\" (the highly attained level of skill of the deceiver is praised). It is this use of the word as a measure of high quality and high value that gives the term its flavor of subjectivity. Making judgments of value requires a basis for criticism. At the simplest level, a way to determine whether the impact of the object on the senses meets the criteria to be considered ''art'' is whether it is perceived to be attractive or repulsive. Though perception is always colored by experience, and is necessarily subjective, it is commonly understood that what is not somehow aesthetically satisfying cannot be art. However, \"good\" art is not always or even regularly aesthetically appealing to a majority of viewers. In other words, an artist's prime motivation need not be the pursuit of the aesthetic. Also, art often depicts terrible images made for social, moral, or thought-provoking reasons. For example, [[Francisco Goya]]'s painting depicting the Spanish shootings of 3 May 1808 is a graphic depiction of a firing squad executing several pleading civilians. Yet at the same time, the horrific imagery demonstrates Goya's keen artistic ability in composition and execution and produces fitting social and political outrage. Thus, the debate continues as to what mode of aesthetic satisfaction, if any, is required to define 'art'. The assumption of new values or the rebellion against accepted notions of what is aesthetically superior need not occur concurrently with a complete abandonment of the pursuit of what is aesthetically appealing. Indeed, the reverse is often true, that the revision of what is popularly conceived of as being aesthetically appealing allows for a re-invigoration of aesthetic sensibility, and a new appreciation for the standards of art itself. Countless schools have proposed their own ways to define quality, yet they all seem to agree in at least one point: once their aesthetic choices are accepted, the value of the work of art is determined by its capacity to transcend the limits of its chosen medium to strike some universal chord by the rarity of the skill of the artist or in its accurate reflection in what is termed the ''[[zeitgeist]]''. Art is often intended to appeal to and connect with human emotion. It can arouse [[aesthetic]] or [[morality|moral]] feelings, and can be understood as a way of communicating these feelings. Artists express something so that their audience is aroused to some extent, but they do not have to do so consciously. Art may be considered an exploration of the [[human condition]]; that is, what it is to be human. By extension, it has been argued by Emily L. Spratt that the development of artificial intelligence, especially in regard to its uses with images, necessitates a re-evaluation of aesthetic theory in art history today and a reconsideration of the limits of human creativity.", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": ["Art and law"], "text": "An essential legal issue are art [[forgeries]], [[plagiarism]], [[replica]] and works that are strongly based on other works of art. The trade in works of art or the export from a country may be subject to legal regulations. Internationally there are also extensive efforts to protect the works of art created. The [[UN]], [[UNESCO]] and [[Blue Shield International]] try to ensure effective protection at the national level and to intervene directly in the event of armed conflicts or disasters. This can particularly affect museums, archives, art collections and excavation sites. This should also secure the economic basis of a country, especially because works of art are often of tourist importance. The founding president of Blue Shield International, [[Karl von Habsburg]], explained an additional connection between the destruction of cultural property and the cause of flight during a mission in Lebanon in April 2019: “Cultural goods are part of the identity of the people who live in a certain place. If you destroy their culture, you also destroy their identity. Many people are uprooted, often no longer have any prospects and as a result flee from their homeland.”", "id": "752", "title": "Art", "categories": ["Art", "Aesthetics", "Visual arts"], "seealso": ["Cultural tourism", "List of artistic media", "Outline of the visual arts", "WP:SEEALSO", "Artist in residence", "Formal analysis", "Street art", "tree structure", "Applied arts", "Mathematics and art", "History of art", "Visual impairment in art", "List of art techniques", "Artistic freedom", "Art movement"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Agnostida''' is an [[order (biology)|order]] of [[arthropod]] which first developed near the end of the [[Cambrian|Early Cambrian]] period and thrived during the Middle Cambrian. They are present in the [[Lower Cambrian]] fossil record along with [[trilobites]] from the [[Redlichiida]], [[Corynexochida]], and [[Ptychopariida]] orders. The last agnostids went [[extinct]] in the Late [[Ordovician]].", "id": "764", "title": "Agnostida", "categories": ["Agnostida", "Trilobite orders", "Cambrian trilobites", "Ordovician trilobites", "Fossil taxa described in 1864", "Cambrian first appearances", "Late Ordovician extinctions", "Taxa named by John William Salter"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Systematics"], "text": "The Agnostida are divided into two suborders — [[Agnostina]] and [[Eodiscina]] — which are then subdivided into a number of [[family (biology)|families]]. As a group, agnostids are isopygous, meaning their [[pygidium]] is similar in size and shape to their [[cephalon (arthropod anatomy)|cephalon]]. Most agnostid species were eyeless. The systematic position of the order Agnostida within the class Trilobita remains uncertain, and there has been continuing debate whether they are trilobites or a [[stem group]]. The challenge to the status has focused on Agnostina partly due to the [[juvenile (organism)|juveniles]] of one genus have been found with legs differing dramatically from those of adult trilobites, suggesting they are not members of the [[lamellipedia]] [[clade]], of which trilobites are a part. Instead, the limbs of agnostids closely resemble those of stem group crustaceans, although they lack the [[proximal endite]], which defines that group. They are likely the [[sister taxon]] to the crustacean stem lineage, and, as such, part of the clade, [[Crustaceomorpha]]. Other researchers have suggested, based on a [[cladistic]] analyses of [[dorsum (anatomy)|dorsal]] [[exoskeleton|exoskeletal]] features, that Eodiscina and Agnostida are closely united, and the Eodiscina descended from the trilobite order [[Ptychopariida]].", "id": "764", "title": "Agnostida", "categories": ["Agnostida", "Trilobite orders", "Cambrian trilobites", "Ordovician trilobites", "Fossil taxa described in 1864", "Cambrian first appearances", "Late Ordovician extinctions", "Taxa named by John William Salter"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Ecology"], "text": "Scientists have long debated whether the agnostids lived a [[pelagic]] or a [[benthic]] lifestyle. Their lack of eyes, a morphology not well-suited for swimming, and their fossils found in association with other benthic trilobites suggest a benthic (bottom-dwelling) mode of life. They are likely to have lived on areas of the ocean floor which received little or no light and fed on [[detritus]] which descended from upper layers of the sea to the bottom. Their wide geographic dispersion in the [[fossil record]] is uncharacteristic of benthic animals, suggesting a pelagic existence. The thoracic segment appears to form a hinge between the head and pygidium allowing for a bivalved [[ostracod]]-type lifestyle. The orientation of the thoracic appendages appears ill-suited for benthic living. Recent work suggests that some agnostids were benthic predators, engaging in cannibalism and possibly pack-hunting behavior. They are sometimes preserved within the voids of other organisms, for instance within empty [[hyolith]] conchs, within [[sponge]], [[Selkirkia|worm tubes]] and under the carapaces of [[Sidneyia|bivalved arthropods]], presumably in order to hide from predators or strong storm currents; or maybe whilst scavenging for food. In the case of the tapering worm tubes ''[[Selkirkia]]'', trilobites are always found with their heads directed towards the opening of the tube, suggesting that they reversed in; the absence of any moulted carapaces suggests that moulting was not their primary reason for seeking shelter.", "id": "764", "title": "Agnostida", "categories": ["Agnostida", "Trilobite orders", "Cambrian trilobites", "Ordovician trilobites", "Fossil taxa described in 1864", "Cambrian first appearances", "Late Ordovician extinctions", "Taxa named by John William Salter"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "'''Abortion''' is the ending of a [[pregnancy]] by removal or expulsion of an [[embryo]] or [[fetus]]. An abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a [[miscarriage]] or \"spontaneous abortion\" and occurs in approximately 30% to 40% of pregnancies. When deliberate steps are taken to end a pregnancy, it is called an [[#Induced|induced abortion]], or less frequently \"induced miscarriage\". The unmodified word ''abortion'' generally refers to an induced abortion. When properly done, abortion is [[#Safety|one of the safest procedures in medicine]], but unsafe abortion is a major cause of [[maternal death]], especially in the [[developing world]], while making safe abortion legal and accessible reduces maternal deaths. It is safer than childbirth, which has a 14 times higher risk of death in the United States. Modern methods use [[medical abortion|medication]] or [[surgical abortion|surgery]] for abortions. The drug [[mifepristone]] in combination with [[prostaglandin]] appears to be as safe and effective as surgery during the [[first trimester|first]] and [[second trimester]] of pregnancy. The most common surgical technique involves dilating the cervix and using a [[vacuum aspiration|suction device]]. [[Birth control]], such as [[combined oral contraceptive pill|the pill]] or [[intrauterine device]], can be used immediately following abortion. When performed legally and safely on a woman who desires it, induced abortions do not increase the risk of long-term [[mental health|mental]] or physical problems. In contrast, [[unsafe abortion]] (those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities) cause 47,000 [[maternal death|deaths]] and 5 million hospital admissions each year. The [[World Health Organization]] states that \"access to legal, safe and comprehensive abortion care, including [[post-abortion care]], is essential for the attainment of the highest possible level of sexual and reproductive health\". Around 56 million abortions are performed each year in the world, with about 45% done unsafely. Abortion rates changed little between 2003 and 2008, before which they decreased for at least two decades as access to [[family planning]] and birth control increased. , 37% of the world's women had access to legal abortions without limits as to reason. Countries that permit abortions have different limits on how late in pregnancy abortion is allowed. Abortion rates are similar between countries that ban abortion and countries that allow it. [[history of abortion|Historically]], abortions have been attempted using [[abortifacient|herbal medicines]], sharp tools, [[fundal massage|forceful massage]], or through other [[traditional medicine|traditional methods]]. [[Abortion law]] and cultural or religious views of abortions are different around the world. In some areas abortion is legal only in specific cases such as [[rape]], [[fetal defects]], [[Socioeconomic status|poverty]], risk to a woman's health, or [[incest]]. There is [[Abortion debate|debate]] over the moral, ethical, and legal issues of abortion. Those who [[Anti-abortion movements|oppose abortion]] often argue that an embryo or fetus is a person with a [[right to life]], and they may compare abortion to [[murder]]. Those who [[Abortion-rights movements|support the legality of abortion]] often hold that it is part of a [[reproductive rights|woman's right to make decisions about her own body]]. Others favor legal and accessible abortion as a public health measure.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Types", "Induced"], "text": "Approximately 205 million pregnancies occur each year worldwide. Over a third are [[unintended pregnancy|unintended]] and about a fifth end in induced abortion. Most abortions result from unintended pregnancies. In the United Kingdom, 1 to 2% of abortions are done due to genetic problems in the fetus. A pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in several ways. The manner selected often depends upon the [[gestational age]] of the embryo or fetus, which increases in size as the pregnancy progresses. Specific procedures may also be selected due to legality, regional availability, and doctor or a woman's personal preference. Reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic or elective. An abortion is medically referred to as a therapeutic abortion when it is performed to save the life of the pregnant woman; to prevent harm to the woman's [[Health|physical]] or [[mental health]]; to terminate a pregnancy where indications are that the child will have a significantly increased chance of mortality or morbidity; or to [[selective reduction|selectively reduce]] the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with [[multiple pregnancy]]. An abortion is referred to as an elective or voluntary abortion when it is performed at the request of the woman for non-medical reasons. Confusion sometimes arises over the term \"elective\" because \"[[elective surgery]]\" generally refers to all scheduled surgery, whether medically necessary or not.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Types", "Spontaneous"], "text": "Miscarriage, also known as spontaneous abortion, is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th [[gestational age|week of gestation]]. A pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a [[live birth (human)|live-born]] infant is a \"[[premature birth]]\" or a \"preterm birth\". When a fetus dies [[Uterus|in utero]] after [[Fetal viability|viability]], or during [[childbirth|delivery]], it is usually termed \"[[stillbirth|stillborn]]\". [[Premature births]] and [[stillbirth]] are generally not considered to be miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap. Only 30% to 50% of conceptions progress past the [[first trimester]]. The vast majority of those that do not progress are lost before the woman is [[clinically silent|aware of the conception]], and many pregnancies are lost before medical practitioners can detect an embryo. Between 15% and 30% of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage, depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman. 80% of these spontaneous abortions happen in the first trimester. The most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is [[chromosomal abnormalities]] of the embryo or fetus, accounting for at least 50% of sampled early pregnancy losses. Other causes include [[vascular disease]] (such as [[Systemic lupus erythematosus|lupus]]), [[diabetes mellitus|diabetes]], other [[Endocrine disease|hormonal problems]], infection, and abnormalities of the uterus. Advancing maternal age and a woman's history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion. A spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental [[Physical trauma|trauma]]; intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or [[feticide]].", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Methods", "Medical"], "text": "Medical abortions are those induced by [[abortifacient]] pharmaceuticals. Medical abortion became an alternative method of abortion with the availability of [[prostaglandin]] [[prostaglandin analogue|analogs]] in the 1970s and the [[antiprogestin|antiprogestogen]] [[mifepristone]] (also known as RU-486) in the 1980s. The most common early first-trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination with [[misoprostol]] (or sometimes another prostaglandin analog, [[gemeprost]]) up to 10 weeks (70 days) gestational age, [[methotrexate]] in combination with a prostaglandin analog up to 7 weeks gestation, or a prostaglandin analog alone. Mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimens work faster and are more effective at later gestational ages than methotrexate–misoprostol combination regimens, and combination regimens are more effective than misoprostol alone. This regimen is effective in the second trimester. Medical abortion regimens involving mifepristone followed by misoprostol in the cheek between 24 and 48 hours later are effective when performed before 70 days' gestation. In very early abortions, up to 7 weeks [[gestation]], medical abortion using a mifepristone–misoprostol combination regimen is considered to be more effective than surgical abortion ([[vacuum aspiration]]), especially when clinical practice does not include detailed inspection of aspirated tissue. Early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone, followed 24–48 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are 98% effective up to 9 weeks gestational age; from 9 to 10 weeks efficacy decreases modestly to 94%. If medical abortion fails, surgical abortion must be used to complete the procedure. Early medical abortions account for the majority of abortions before 9 weeks gestation in [[Abortion in Great Britain|Britain]], [[Abortion in France|France]], [[Abortion in Switzerland|Switzerland]], [[Abortion in the United States|United States]], and the [[Nordic countries]]. Medical abortion regimens using mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog are the most common methods used for second-trimester abortions in [[Abortion in Canada|Canada]], most of Europe, [[Abortion in China|China]] and [[Abortion in India|India]], in contrast to the United States where 96% of second-trimester abortions are performed surgically by [[dilation and evacuation]]. A 2020 Cochrane Systematic Review concluded that providing women with medications to take home to complete the second stage of the procedure for an early medical abortion results in an effective abortion. Further research is required to determine if self-administered medical abortion is as safe as provider-administered medical abortion, where a health care professional is present to help manage the medical abortion. Safely permitting women to self-administer abortion medication has the potential to improve access to abortion. Other research gaps that were identified include how to best support women who choose to take the medication home for a self-administered abortion.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Methods", "Surgical"], "text": "Up to 15 weeks' gestation, [[suction-aspiration abortion|suction-aspiration]] or [[vacuum aspiration]] are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion. ''Manual vacuum aspiration'' (MVA) consists of removing the [[fetus]] or [[embryo]], [[placenta]], and membranes by suction using a manual syringe, while ''electric vacuum aspiration'' (EVA) uses an electric pump. These techniques can both be used very early in pregnancy. MVA can be used up to 14 weeks but is more often used earlier in the U.S. EVA can be used later. MVA, also known as \"mini-suction\" and \"[[menstrual extraction]]\" or EVA can be used in very early pregnancy when cervical dilation may not be required. [[Dilation and curettage]] (D&C) refers to opening the cervix (dilation) and removing tissue (curettage) via suction or sharp instruments. D&C is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons, including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy, investigation of abnormal bleeding, and abortion. The [[World Health Organization]] recommends ''sharp curettage'' only when suction aspiration is unavailable. [[Dilation and evacuation]] (D&E), used after 12 to 16 weeks, consists of opening the [[cervix]] and emptying the uterus using surgical instruments and suction. D&E is performed vaginally and does not require an incision. [[Intact dilation and extraction]](D&X) refers to a variant of D&E sometimes used after 18 to 20 weeks when removal of an intact fetus improves surgical safety or for other reasons. Abortion may also be performed surgically by hysterotomy or gravid hysterectomy. [[Hysterotomy abortion]] is a procedure similar to a [[caesarean section]] and is performed under [[general anesthesia]]. It requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and can be used during later stages of pregnancy. Gravid hysterectomy refers to removal of the whole uterus while still containing the pregnancy. Hysterotomy and hysterectomy are associated with much higher rates of maternal morbidity and mortality than D&E or induction abortion. First-trimester procedures can generally be performed using [[local anesthesia]], while second-trimester methods may require [[Sedation#Levels of sedation|deep sedation]] or [[general anesthesia]].", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Methods", "Labor induction abortion"], "text": "In places lacking the necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction, or where preferred by practitioners, an abortion can be induced by first [[Labor induction|inducing labor]] and then [[Late termination of pregnancy#Methods|inducing fetal demise]] if necessary. This is sometimes called \"induced miscarriage\". This procedure may be performed from 13 weeks gestation to the third trimester. Although it is very uncommon in the United States, more than 80% of induced abortions throughout the second trimester are labor-induced abortions in Sweden and other nearby countries. Only limited data are available comparing this method with dilation and extraction. Unlike D&E, labor-induced abortions after 18 weeks may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival, which may be legally characterized as live birth. For this reason, labor-induced abortion is legally risky in the United States.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Methods", "Other methods"], "text": "Historically, a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in [[folk medicine]]. Among these are: [[tansy]], [[Mentha pulegium|pennyroyal]], [[black cohosh]], and the now-extinct [[silphium]]. In 1978 one woman in Colorado died and another developed organ damage when they attempted to terminate their pregnancies by taking pennyroyal oil. Because the indiscriminant use of herbs as abortifacients can cause serious—even lethal—side effects, such as [[multiple organ dysfunction syndrome|multiple organ failure]], such use is not recommended by physicians. Abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen. The degree of force, if severe, can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing [[miscarriage]]. In Southeast Asia, there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage. One of the [[bas relief]] decorating the temple of [[Angkor Wat]] in Cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the [[underworld]]. Reported methods of unsafe, [[self-induced abortion]] include misuse of [[misoprostol]] and insertion of non-surgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus. These and other methods to terminate pregnancy may be called \"induced miscarriage\". Such methods are rarely used in countries where surgical abortion is legal and available.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Safety"], "text": "The health risks of abortion depend principally upon whether the procedure is performed safely or unsafely. The [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) defines [[unsafe abortion]] as those performed by unskilled individuals, with hazardous equipment, or in unsanitary facilities. Legal abortions performed in the [[developed country|developed world]] are among the safest procedures in medicine. In the United States as of 2012, abortion was estimated to be about 14 times safer for women than childbirth. CDC estimated in 2019 that US pregnancy-related mortality was 17.2 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births, while the US abortion mortality rate is 0.7 maternal deaths per 100,000 procedures. In the UK, guidelines of the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists state that \"Women should be advised that abortion is generally safer than continuing a pregnancy to term.\" Worldwide, on average, abortion is safer than carrying a pregnancy to term. A 2007 study reported that \"26% of all pregnancies worldwide are terminated by induced abortion,\" whereas \"deaths from improperly performed [abortion] procedures constitute 13% of maternal mortality globally.\" In Indonesia in 2000 it was estimated that 2 million pregnancies ended in abortion, 4.5 million pregnancies were carried to term, and 14-16 percent of maternal deaths resulted from abortion. In the US from 2000 to 2009, abortion had a lower mortality rate than [[plastic surgery]], and a similar or lower mortality rate than running a marathon. Five years after seeking abortion services, women who gave birth after being denied an abortion reported worse health than women who had either first or second trimester abortions. The risk of abortion-related mortality increases with gestational age, but remains lower than that of childbirth. Outpatient abortion is as safe from 64 to 70 days' gestation as it before 63 days. There is little difference in terms of safety and efficacy between medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol and surgical abortion (vacuum aspiration) in early first trimester abortions up to 10 weeks gestation. Medical abortion using the prostaglandin analog misoprostol alone is less effective and more painful than medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol or surgical abortion. [[Vacuum aspiration]] in the first trimester is the safest method of surgical abortion, and can be performed in a [[primary care|primary care office]], [[abortion clinic]], or hospital. Complications, which are rare, can include [[uterine perforation]], [[endometritis|pelvic infection]], and retained products of conception requiring a second procedure to evacuate. Infections account for one-third of abortion-related deaths in the United States. The rate of complications of vacuum aspiration abortion in the first trimester is similar regardless of whether the procedure is performed in a hospital, surgical center, or office. Preventive antibiotics (such as [[doxycycline]] or [[metronidazole]]) are typically given before abortion procedures, as they are believed to substantially reduce the risk of postoperative uterine infection; however, antibiotics are not routinely given with abortion pills. The rate of failed procedures does not appear to vary significantly depending on whether the abortion is performed by a doctor or a [[mid-level practitioner]].", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Safety"], "text": "Complications after second-trimester abortion are similar to those after first-trimester abortion, and depend somewhat on the method chosen. The risk of death from abortion approaches roughly half the risk of death from childbirth the farther along a woman is in pregnancy; from one in a million before 9 weeks gestation to nearly one in ten thousand at 21 weeks or more (as measured from the last menstrual period). It appears that having had a prior surgical uterine evacuation (whether because of induced abortion or treatment of miscarriage) correlates with a small increase in the risk of preterm birth in future pregnancies. The studies supporting this did not control for factors not related to abortion or miscarriage, and hence the causes of this correlation have not been determined, although multiple possibilities have been suggested. Some purported risks of abortion are promoted primarily by anti-abortion groups, but lack scientific support. For example, the question of a link between [[abortion-breast cancer hypothesis|induced abortion and breast cancer]] has been investigated extensively. Major medical and scientific bodies (including the WHO, [[National Cancer Institute]], [[American Cancer Society]], [[Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists|Royal College of OBGYN]] and [[American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists|American Congress of OBGYN]]) have concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer. In the past even illegality has not automatically meant that the abortions were unsafe. Referring to the U.S., historian [[Linda Gordon]] states: \"In fact, illegal abortions in this country have an impressive safety record.\" According to [[Rickie Solinger]], Authors Jerome Bates and Edward Zawadzki describe the case of an illegal abortionist in the eastern U.S. in the early 20th century who was proud of having successfully completed 13,844 abortions without any fatality. In 1870s New York City the famous abortionist/midwife [[Madame Restell]] (Anna Trow Lohman) appears to have lost very few women among her more than 100,000 patients—a lower mortality rate than the childbirth mortality rate at the time. In 1936 the prominent professor of obstetrics and gynecology [[Frederick J. Taussig]] wrote that a cause of increasing mortality during the years of illegality in the U.S. was that", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Safety", "Mental health"], "text": "Current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions and [[abortion and mental health|mental health problems]] other than those expected for any unwanted pregnancy. A report by the [[American Psychological Association]] concluded that a woman's first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester, with such women no more likely to have mental-health problems than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term; the mental-health outcome of a woman's second or greater abortion is less certain. Some older reviews concluded that abortion was associated with an increased risk of psychological problems; however, they did not use an appropriate control group. Although some studies show negative mental-health outcomes in women who choose abortions after the first trimester because of fetal abnormalities, more rigorous research would be needed to show this conclusively. Some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by anti-abortion advocates as a separate condition called \"[[post-abortion syndrome]]\", but this is not recognized by medical or psychological professionals in the United States. A long term-study among US women found that about 99% of women felt that they made the right decision five years after they had an abortion. Relief was the primary emotion with few women feeling sadness or guilt. Social stigma was a main factor predicting negative emotions and regret years later.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Safety", "Unsafe abortion"], "text": "Women seeking an abortion may use unsafe methods, especially when it is legally restricted. They may attempt [[self-induced abortion]] or seek the help of a person without proper medical training or facilities. This can lead to severe complications, such as incomplete abortion, [[sepsis]], hemorrhage, and damage to internal organs. Unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury and death among women worldwide. Although data are imprecise, it is estimated that approximately 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually, with 97% taking place in [[developing country|developing countries]]. Unsafe abortions are believed to result in millions of injuries. Estimates of deaths vary according to methodology, and have ranged from 37,000 to 70,000 in the past decade; deaths from unsafe abortion account for around 13% of all [[maternal deaths]]. The [[World Health Organization]] believes that mortality has fallen since the 1990s. To reduce the number of unsafe abortions, public health organizations have generally advocated emphasizing the legalization of abortion, training of medical personnel, and ensuring access to reproductive-health services. In response, opponents of abortion point out that abortion bans in no way affect prenatal care for women who choose to carry their fetus to term. The Dublin Declaration on Maternal Health, signed in 2012, notes, \"the prohibition of abortion does not affect, in any way, the availability of optimal care to pregnant women.\" A major factor in whether abortions are performed safely or not is the legal standing of abortion. Countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates of unsafe abortion and similar overall abortion rates compared to those where abortion is legal and available. For example, the 1996 legalization of abortion in South Africa had an immediate positive impact on the frequency of abortion-related complications, with abortion-related deaths dropping by more than 90%. Similar reductions in maternal mortality have been observed after other countries have liberalized their abortion laws, such as [[Romania]] and [[Nepal]]. A 2011 study concluded that in the United States, some state-level anti-abortion laws are correlated with lower rates of abortion in that state. The analysis, however, did not take into account travel to other states without such laws to obtain an abortion. In addition, a lack of access to effective contraception contributes to unsafe abortion. It has been estimated that the incidence of unsafe abortion could be reduced by up to 75% (from 20 million to 5 million annually) if modern family planning and maternal health services were readily available globally. Rates of such abortions may be difficult to measure because they can be reported variously as miscarriage, \"induced miscarriage\", \"menstrual regulation\", \"mini-abortion\", and \"regulation of a delayed/suspended menstruation\".", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Safety", "Unsafe abortion"], "text": "Forty percent of the world's women are able to access therapeutic and elective abortions within gestational limits, while an additional 35 percent have access to legal abortion if they meet certain physical, mental, or socioeconomic criteria. While [[maternal death|maternal mortality]] seldom results from safe abortions, unsafe abortions result in 70,000 deaths and 5 million disabilities per year. Complications of unsafe abortion account for approximately an eighth of maternal mortalities worldwide, though this varies by region. Secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women. The rate of unsafe abortions has increased from 44% to 49% between 1995 and 2008. Health education, access to family planning, and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address this phenomenon.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Incidence"], "text": "There are two commonly used methods of measuring the incidence of abortion: (-) Abortion rate – number of abortions annually per 1000 women between 15 and 44 years of age (some sources use a range of 15–49) (-) Abortion percentage – number of abortions out of 100 known pregnancies (pregnancies include live births, abortions and miscarriages) In many places, where abortion is illegal or carries a heavy social stigma, medical reporting of abortion is not reliable. For this reason, estimates of the incidence of abortion must be made without determining certainty related to standard error. The number of abortions performed worldwide seems to have remained stable in recent years, with 41.6 million having been performed in 2003 and 43.8 million having been performed in 2008. The abortion rate worldwide was 28 per 1000 women per year, though it was 24 per 1000 women per year for developed countries and 29 per 1000 women per year for developing countries. The same 2012 study indicated that in 2008, the estimated abortion percentage of known pregnancies was at 21% worldwide, with 26% in developed countries and 20% in developing countries. On average, the incidence of abortion is similar in countries with restrictive abortion laws and those with more liberal access to abortion. However, restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases in the percentage of abortions performed unsafely. The unsafe abortion rate in developing countries is partly attributable to lack of access to modern contraceptives; according to the [[Guttmacher Institute]], providing access to contraceptives would result in about 14.5 million fewer unsafe abortions and 38,000 fewer deaths from unsafe abortion annually worldwide. The rate of legal, induced abortion varies extensively worldwide. According to the report of employees of Guttmacher Institute it ranged from 7 per 1000 women per year (Germany and Switzerland) to 30 per 1000 women per year (Estonia) in countries with complete statistics in 2008. The proportion of pregnancies that ended in induced abortion ranged from about 10% (Israel, the Netherlands and Switzerland) to 30% (Estonia) in the same group, though it might be as high as 36% in Hungary and Romania, whose statistics were deemed incomplete. An American study in 2002 concluded that about half of women having abortions were using a form of [[birth control|contraception]] at the time of becoming pregnant. Inconsistent use was reported by half of those using [[condom]] and three-quarters of those using the [[combined oral contraceptive pill|birth control pill]]; 42% of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage. The Guttmacher Institute estimated that \"most abortions in the United States are obtained by minority women\" because minority women \"have much higher rates of unintended pregnancy\". The abortion rate may also be expressed as the average number of abortions a woman has during her reproductive years; this is referred to as ''total abortion rate'' (TAR).", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Incidence", "Gestational age and method"], "text": "Abortion rates also vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method practiced. In 2003, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] (CDC) reported that 26% of reported legal induced abortions in the United States were known to have been obtained at less than 6 weeks' gestation, 18% at 7 weeks, 15% at 8 weeks, 18% at 9 through 10 weeks, 10% at 11 through 12 weeks, 6% at 13 through 15 weeks, 4% at 16 through 20 weeks and 1% at more than 21 weeks. 91% of these were classified as having been done by \"[[curettage]]\" ([[Suction-aspiration abortion|suction-aspiration]], [[dilation and curettage]], [[dilation and evacuation]]), 8% by \"[[medical abortion|medical]]\" means ([[mifepristone]]), >1% by \"[[instillation abortion|intrauterine instillation]]\" (saline or [[prostaglandin]]), and 1% by \"other\" (including [[hysterotomy abortion|hysterotomy]] and [[hysterectomy]]). According to the CDC, due to data collection difficulties the data must be viewed as tentative and some fetal deaths reported beyond 20 weeks may be natural deaths erroneously classified as abortions if the removal of the dead fetus is accomplished by the same procedure as an induced abortion. The Guttmacher Institute estimated there were 2,200 [[intact dilation and extraction]] procedures in the US during 2000; this accounts for <0.2% of the total number of abortions performed that year. Similarly, in England and Wales in 2006, 89% of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks, 9% between 13 and 19 weeks, and 2% at or over 20 weeks. 64% of those reported were by vacuum aspiration, 6% by D&E, and 30% were medical. There are more second trimester abortions in developing countries such as China, India and Vietnam than in developed countries.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Motivation", "Personal"], "text": "The reasons why women have abortions are diverse and vary across the world. Some of the reasons may include an inability to afford a child, [[domestic violence]], lack of support, feeling they are too young, and the wish to complete education or advance a career. Additional reasons include not being able or willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or [[incest]]", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Motivation", "Societal"], "text": "Some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures. These might include the preference for children of a specific sex or race, disapproval of single or early motherhood, stigmatization of people with disabilities, insufficient economic support for families, lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods, or efforts toward [[population control]] (such as China's [[one-child policy]]). These factors can sometimes result in compulsory abortion or [[sex-selective abortion]].", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Motivation", "Maternal and fetal health"], "text": "An additional factor is maternal health which was listed as the main reason by about a third of women in 3 of 27 countries and about 7% of women in a further 7 of these 27 countries. In the U.S., the Supreme Court decisions in ''[[Roe v. Wade]]'' and ''[[Doe v. Bolton]]'': \"ruled that the state's interest in the life of the fetus became compelling only at the point of viability, defined as the point at which the fetus can survive independently of its mother. Even after the point of viability, the state cannot favor the life of the fetus over the life or health of the pregnant woman. Under the right of privacy, physicians must be free to use their \"medical judgment for the preservation of the life or health of the mother.\" On the same day that the Court decided Roe, it also decided Doe v. Bolton, in which the Court defined health very broadly: \"The medical judgment may be exercised in the light of all factors—physical, emotional, psychological, familial, and the woman's age—relevant to the well-being of the patient. All these factors may relate to health. This allows the attending physician the room he needs to make his best medical judgment.\" Public opinion shifted in America following television personality [[Sherri Finkbine]]'s discovery during her fifth month of pregnancy that she had been exposed to [[thalidomide]]. Unable to obtain a legal abortion in the United States, she traveled to Sweden. From 1962 to 1965, an outbreak of [[Rubella|German measles]] left 15,000 babies with severe birth defects. In 1967, the [[American Medical Association]] publicly supported liberalization of abortion laws. A National Opinion Research Center poll in 1965 showed 73% supported abortion when the mother's life was at risk, 57% when birth defects were present and 59% for pregnancies resulting from rape or incest.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Motivation", "Maternal and fetal health", "Cancer"], "text": "The rate of cancer during pregnancy is 0.02–1%, and in many cases, cancer of the mother leads to consideration of abortion to protect the life of the mother, or in response to the potential damage that may occur to the fetus during treatment. This is particularly true for [[cervical cancer]], the most common type of which occurs in 1 of every 2,000–13,000 pregnancies, for which initiation of treatment \"cannot co-exist with preservation of fetal life (unless [[neoadjuvant chemotherapy]] is chosen)\". Very early stage cervical cancers (I and IIa) may be treated by [[radical hysterectomy]] and pelvic [[lymph node]] dissection, [[radiation therapy]], or both, while later stages are treated by radiotherapy. Chemotherapy may be used simultaneously. Treatment of breast cancer during pregnancy also involves fetal considerations, because [[lumpectomy]] is discouraged in favor of modified [[radical mastectomy]] unless late-term pregnancy allows follow-up radiation therapy to be administered after the birth. Exposure to a single chemotherapy drug is estimated to cause a 7.5–17% risk of [[teratogenic]] effects on the fetus, with higher risks for multiple drug treatments. Treatment with more than 40 [[gray (unit)|Gy]] of radiation usually causes spontaneous abortion. Exposure to much lower doses during the first trimester, especially 8 to 15 weeks of development, can cause [[intellectual disability]] or [[microcephaly]], and exposure at this or subsequent stages can cause reduced intrauterine growth and birth weight. Exposures above 0.005–0.025 Gy cause a dose-dependent reduction in [[IQ]]. It is possible to greatly reduce exposure to radiation with abdominal shielding, depending on how far the area to be irradiated is from the fetus. The process of birth itself may also put the mother at risk. \"Vaginal delivery may result in dissemination of neoplastic cells into lymphovascular channels, haemorrhage, cervical laceration and implantation of malignant cells in the episiotomy site, while abdominal delivery may delay the initiation of non-surgical treatment.\"", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History and religion"], "text": "Since [[history of abortion|ancient times]] abortions have been done using a number of methods, including [[abortifacient|herbal medicines]], sharp tools, with [[physical trauma|force]], or through other [[traditional medicine|traditional methods]]. Induced abortion has a long history and can be traced back to civilizations as varied as China under [[Shennong]] (c. 2700 BCE), [[Ancient Egypt]] with its [[Ebers Papyrus]] (c. 1550 BCE), and the Roman Empire in the time of [[Juvenal]] (c. 200 CE). One of the [[History of abortion#5th century to 18th century|earliest]] known artistic representations of abortion is in a [[bas relief]] at Angkor Wat (c. 1150). Found in a series of [[frieze]] that represent judgment after death in [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] culture, it depicts the technique of abdominal abortion. Some medical scholars and abortion opponents have suggested that the [[Hippocratic Oath]] forbade [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] physicians from performing abortions; other scholars disagree with this interpretation, and state that the medical texts of [[Hippocratic Corpus]] contain descriptions of abortive techniques right alongside the Oath. The physician [[Scribonius Largus]] wrote in 43 CE that the Hippocratic Oath prohibits abortion, as did [[Soranus of Ephesus|Soranus]], although apparently not all doctors adhered to it strictly at the time. According to Soranus' 1st or 2nd century CE work ''Gynaecology'', one party of medical practitioners banished all abortives as required by the Hippocratic Oath; the other party—to which he belonged—was willing to prescribe abortions, but only for the sake of the mother's health. [[Aristotle]], in his treatise on government ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'' (350 BCE), condemns infanticide as a means of population control. He preferred abortion in such cases, with the restriction \"<nowiki>[that it]</nowiki> must be practised on it before it has developed sensation and life; for the line between lawful and unlawful abortion will be marked by the fact of having sensation and being alive\". [[Christianity and abortion|In Christianity]], [[Pope Sixtus V]] (1585–90) was the first Pope before 1869 to declare that abortion is homicide regardless of the stage of pregnancy; and his pronouncement of 1588 was reversed three years later by his successor. Through most of its history the Catholic Church was divided on whether it believed that early abortion was murder, and it did not begin vigorously opposing abortion until the 19th century. Several historians have written that prior to the 19th century most Catholic authors did not regard termination of pregnancy before \"quickening\" or \"ensoulment\" as an abortion. From 1750, excommunication became the punishment for abortions. Statements made in 1992 in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], the codified summary of the Church's teachings, opposed abortion. A 2014 Guttmacher survey of US abortion patients found that many reported a religious affiliation—24% were Catholic while 30% were Protestant.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["History and religion"], "text": "A 1995 survey reported that Catholic women are as likely as the general population to terminate a pregnancy, [[Protestants]] are less likely to do so, and [[Evangelical Christians]] are the least likely to do so. [[Islam and abortion|Islamic tradition]] has traditionally permitted abortion until a point in time when Muslims believe the soul enters the fetus, considered by various theologians to be at conception, 40 days after conception, 120 days after conception, or [[quickening]].<ref name=\"BBC and Islam / Abortion\"></ref> However, abortion is largely heavily restricted or forbidden in areas of high Islamic faith such as the [[Middle East and North Africa]]. In Europe and North America, abortion techniques advanced starting in the 17th century. However, conservatism by most physicians with regards to sexual matters prevented the wide expansion of safe abortion techniques. Other medical practitioners in addition to some physicians advertised their services, and they were not widely regulated until the 19th century, when the practice (sometimes called ''restellism'') was banned in both the United States and the United Kingdom. Church groups as well as physicians were highly influential in [[anti-abortion movement]]. In the US, according to some sources, abortion was more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930 when incremental improvements in abortion procedures relative to childbirth made abortion safer. However, other sources maintain that in the 19th century early abortions under the hygienic conditions in which midwives usually worked were relatively safe. In addition, some commentators have written that, despite improved medical procedures, the period from the 1930s until legalization also saw more zealous enforcement of anti-abortion laws, and concomitantly an increasing control of abortion providers by organized crime. Soviet Russia (1919), Iceland (1935), and Sweden (1938) were among the first countries to legalize certain or all forms of abortion. In 1935, Nazi Germany, a law was passed permitting abortions for those deemed \"hereditarily ill\", while women considered of German stock were specifically prohibited from having abortions. Beginning in the second half of the twentieth century, abortion was legalized in a greater number of countries.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Society and culture", "Abortion debate"], "text": "Induced abortion has long been the source of considerable debate. [[Medical ethics|Ethical]], [[Morality|moral]], [[Philosophical aspects of the abortion debate|philosophical]], [[Therapeutic abortion|biological]], [[Ethics in religion|religious]] and [[Abortion law|legal]] issues surrounding abortion are related to [[value system]]. Opinions of abortion may be about [[fetal rights]], governmental authority, and [[women's rights]]. In both public and private debate, arguments presented in favor of or against abortion access focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion, or justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion. The [[World Medical Association]] Declaration on Therapeutic Abortion notes, \"circumstances bringing the interests of a mother into conflict with the interests of her unborn child create a dilemma and raise the question as to whether or not the pregnancy should be deliberately terminated.\" Abortion debates, especially pertaining to [[abortion law]], are often spearheaded by groups advocating one of these two positions. Groups who favor greater legal restrictions on abortion, including complete prohibition, most often describe themselves as \"pro-life\" while groups who are against such legal restrictions describe themselves as \"pro-choice\". Generally, the former position argues that a human fetus is a [[Personhood|human person]] with a [[right to life|right to live]], making abortion morally the same as [[murder]]. The latter position argues that a woman has certain [[reproductive rights]], especially the right to decide whether or not to carry a pregnancy to term.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Society and culture", "Modern abortion law"], "text": "Current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse. Religious, moral, and cultural factors continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world. The [[right to life]], the right to liberty, the right to [[security of person]], and the right to [[reproductive health]] are major issues of human rights that sometimes constitute the basis for the existence or absence of abortion laws. In jurisdictions where abortion is legal, certain requirements must often be met before a woman may obtain a safe, legal abortion (an abortion performed without the woman's consent is considered [[feticide]]). These requirements usually depend on the age of the fetus, often using a [[Pregnancy#Terminology|trimester]]-based system to regulate the window of legality, or as in the U.S., on a doctor's evaluation of the fetus' [[Fetal viability|viability]]. Some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure, prescribe the distribution of information on [[prenatal development|fetal development]], or require that [[minors and abortion|parents be contacted]] if their minor daughter requests an abortion. Other jurisdictions may require that a woman obtain the [[Paternal rights and abortion|consent of the fetus' father]] before aborting the fetus, that abortion providers inform women of health risks of the procedure—sometimes including \"risks\" not supported by the medical literature—and that multiple medical authorities certify that the abortion is either medically or socially necessary. Many restrictions are waived in emergency situations. China, which has ended their [[one-child policy]], and now has a two child policy, has at times incorporated mandatory abortions as part of their population control strategy. Other jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely. Many, but not all, of these allow legal abortions in a variety of circumstances. These circumstances vary based on jurisdiction, but may include whether the pregnancy is a result of rape or incest, the fetus' development is impaired, the woman's physical or mental well-being is endangered, or socioeconomic considerations make childbirth a hardship. In countries where abortion is banned entirely, such as [[Abortion in Nicaragua|Nicaragua]], medical authorities have recorded rises in maternal death directly and indirectly due to pregnancy as well as deaths due to doctors' fears of prosecution if they treat other gynecological emergencies. Some countries, such as Bangladesh, that nominally ban abortion, may also support clinics that perform abortions under the guise of menstrual hygiene. This is also a terminology in traditional medicine. In places where abortion is illegal or carries heavy social stigma, pregnant women may engage in [[medical tourism]] and travel to countries where they can terminate their pregnancies. Women without the means to travel can resort to providers of illegal abortions or attempt to perform an abortion by themselves. The organization [[Women on Waves]] has been providing education about medical abortions since 1999. The NGO created a mobile medical clinic inside a shipping container, which then travels on rented ships to countries with restrictive abortion laws. Because the ships are registered in the Netherlands, Dutch law prevails when the ship is in international waters. While in port, the organization provides free workshops and education; while in international waters, medical personnel are legally able to prescribe medical abortion drugs and counseling.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Society and culture", "Sex-selective abortion"], "text": "[[Medical ultrasonography|Sonography]] and [[amniocentesis]] allow parents to determine sex before childbirth. The development of this technology has led to [[sex-selective abortion and female infanticide|sex-selective abortion]], or the termination of a fetus based on its sex. The selective termination of a female fetus is most common. Sex-selective abortion is partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some countries. The preference for male children is reported in many areas of Asia, and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in Taiwan, South Korea, India, and China. This deviation from the standard birth rates of males and females occurs despite the fact that the country in question may have officially banned sex-selective abortion or even sex-screening. In China, a historical preference for a male child has been exacerbated by the [[one-child policy]], which was enacted in 1979. Many countries have taken legislative steps to reduce the incidence of sex-selective abortion. At the [[International Conference on Population and Development]] in 1994 over 180 states agreed to eliminate \"all forms of discrimination against the girl child and the root causes of son preference\", conditions also condemned by a [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|PACE]] resolution in 2011. The [[World Health Organization]] and [[UNICEF]], along with other United Nations agencies, have found that measures to reduce access to abortion are much less effective at reducing sex-selective abortions than measures to reduce gender inequality.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Society and culture", "Anti-abortion violence"], "text": "In a number of cases, abortion providers and these facilities have been subjected to various forms of violence, including murder, attempted murder, kidnapping, stalking, assault, arson, and bombing. Anti-abortion violence is classified by both governmental and scholarly sources as terrorism. In the U.S. and Canada, over 8,000 incidents of violence, trespassing, and death threats have been recorded by providers since 1977, including over 200 bombings/arsons and hundreds of assaults. The majority of abortion opponents have not been involved in violent acts. In the United States, four physicians who performed abortions have been murdered: [[David Gunn (doctor)|David Gunn]] (1993), [[John Britton (doctor)|John Britton]] (1994), [[Barnett Slepian]] (1998), and [[George Tiller]] (2009). Also murdered, in the U.S. and Australia, have been other personnel at abortion clinics, including receptionists and security guards such as James Barrett, Shannon Lowney, Lee Ann Nichols, and Robert Sanderson. Woundings (e.g., [[Garson Romalis]]) and attempted murders have also taken place in the United States and Canada. Hundreds of bombings, arsons, acid attacks, invasions, and incidents of vandalism against abortion providers have occurred. Notable perpetrators of anti-abortion violence include [[Eric Robert Rudolph]], [[Scott Roeder]], [[Shelley Shannon]], and [[Paul Jennings Hill]], the first person to be executed in the United States for murdering an abortion provider. [[Legal protection of access to abortion]] has been brought into some countries where abortion is legal. These laws typically seek to protect abortion clinics from obstruction, vandalism, picketing, and other actions, or to protect women and employees of such facilities from threats and harassment. Far more common than physical violence is psychological pressure. In 2003, Chris Danze organized anti-abortion organizations throughout Texas to prevent the construction of a [[Planned Parenthood]] facility in Austin. The organizations [[doxing|released the personal information]] online, of those involved with construction, sending them up to 1200 phone calls a day and contacting their churches. Some protestors record women entering clinics on camera.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": ["Other animals"], "text": "Spontaneous abortion occurs in various animals. For example, in sheep it may be caused by stress or physical exertion, such as crowding through doors or being chased by dogs. In cows, abortion may be caused by contagious disease, such as [[brucellosis]] or ''[[Campylobacter]]'', but can often be controlled by vaccination. Eating [[pine needle]] can also induce abortions in cows. Several plants, including [[Gutierrezia sarothrae|broomweed]], [[Veratrum californicum|skunk cabbage]], [[Conium maculatum|poison hemlock]], and [[Nicotiana glauca|tree tobacco]], are known to cause fetal deformities and abortion in cattle and in sheep and goats. In horses, a fetus may be aborted or resorbed if it has [[lethal white syndrome]] (congenital intestinal aganglionosis). Foal embryos that are homozygous for the [[dominant white]] gene (WW) are theorized to also be aborted or resorbed before birth. In many species of sharks and rays, stress-induced abortions occur frequently on capture. Viral infection can cause abortion in dogs. Cats can experience spontaneous abortion for many reasons, including hormonal imbalance. A combined abortion and spaying is performed on pregnant cats, especially in [[trap–neuter–return]] programs, to prevent unwanted kittens from being born. Female rodents may terminate a pregnancy when exposed to the smell of a male not responsible for the pregnancy, known as the [[Bruce effect]]. Abortion may also be induced in animals, in the context of [[animal husbandry]]. For example, abortion may be induced in mares that have been mated improperly, or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant, or that are pregnant with twin foals. Feticide can occur in horses and zebras due to male harassment of pregnant mares or forced copulation, although the frequency in the wild has been questioned. Male [[gray langur]] monkeys may attack females following male takeover, causing miscarriage.", "id": "765", "title": "Abortion", "categories": ["Abortion", "Human reproduction", "Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate", "RTTEM"], "seealso": []}
{"headers": [], "text": "In [[law]], an '''abstract''' is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long [[legal document]] or of several related legal papers.", "id": "766", "title": "Abstract (law)", "categories": ["Legal research"], "seealso": ["Property abstract"]}
{"headers": ["Abstract of title"], "text": "The Abstract of Title, used in [[real estate]] transactions, is the more common form of abstract. An abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land, a house, or a building before it came into possession of the present owner. The abstract also records all [[deed]], [[will (law)|wills]], [[mortgage law|mortgages]], and other documents that affect [[ownership]] of the property. An abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners.", "id": "766", "title": "Abstract (law)", "categories": ["Legal research"], "seealso": ["Property abstract"]}
{"headers": ["Clear title"], "text": "A clear title to property is one that clearly states any obligation in the deed to the property. It reveals no breaksin the chain of legal ownership. After the records of the property have been traced and the title has been found clear, it is sometimes guaranteed, or insured. In a few states, a different system of insuring title of real properties provides for registration of a clear title with public authorities. After this is accomplished, no abstract of title is necessary.", "id": "766", "title": "Abstract (law)", "categories": ["Legal research"], "seealso": ["Property abstract"]}
{"headers": ["Patent law"], "text": "In the context of [[patent]] law and specifically in [[prior art]] searches, searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to [[novelty (patent)|novelty]] or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|inventive step]] (or [[Inventive step and non-obviousness|non-obviousness]] in United States patent law) of an invention. Under [[United States patent law]], the abstract may be called \"Abstract of the Disclosure\".", "id": "766", "title": "Abstract (law)", "categories": ["Legal research"], "seealso": ["Property abstract"]}
{"headers": ["Administrative process"], "text": "Certain government bureaucracies, such as a ''department of motor vehicles'' will issue an '''abstract''' of a completed transaction or an updated record intended to serve as a proof of compliance with some administrative requirement. This is often done in advance of the update of reporting databases and/or the issuance of official documents.", "id": "766", "title": "Abstract (law)", "categories": ["Legal research"], "seealso": ["Property abstract"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''American Revolutionary War''' (April 19, 1775 – September 3, 1783), also known as the '''Revolutionary War''' or the '''American War of Independence,''' was initiated by delegates from [[Thirteen Colonies|thirteen American colonies]] of [[British America]] in [[Continental Congress|Congress]] against [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] over their objection to [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament's]] taxation policies and [[No taxation without representation|lack of colonial representation]]. From their founding in the 1600s, the colonies were largely left to govern themselves. The cost of victory in the 1754 to 1763 [[French and Indian War]] and the 1756 to 1763 [[Seven Years' War]] left the British government deeply in debt; the [[The Thirteen Colonies|colonies]], where the war was fought, equipped and populated the British forces there at the cost of millions of their own funds. The [[Stamp Act 1765|Stamp Act]] and [[Townshend Acts]] provoked colonial opposition and unrest, leading to the 1770 [[Boston Massacre]] and 1773 [[Boston Tea Party]]. When Parliament imposed the [[Intolerable Acts]] in spring 1774 upon [[Province of Massachusetts Bay|Massachusetts]], twelve colonies sent delegates to the [[First Continental Congress]] (September 5 – October 26, 1774) to draft a [[Petition to the King]] and organize a boycott of British goods. Fighting broke out on 19 April 1775: the British army stationed at Boston was harassed by the Massachusetts militia at [[Battles of Lexington and Concord|Lexington and Concord]] after destroying colonial Assembly powder stores. In June, the [[Second Continental Congress]] appointed [[George Washington]] to create a [[Continental Army]] and oversee the [[Siege of Boston|capture of Boston]] (April 19, 1775 – March 17, 1776). The [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriots]] sent the [[Olive Branch Petition]] (signed July 8, 1775) to the King and Parliament, both of whom rejected it. In response, they invaded [[Invasion of Quebec (1775)|British Quebec]] but were repulsed. In July 1776, Congress unanimously passed the [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]. Hopes of a quick settlement were supported by [[Rockingham Whigs|American sympathizers within Parliament]] who opposed [[Frederick North, Lord North|Lord North]]'s \"coercion policy\" in the colonies. However, after the British were [[Siege of Boston|driven out]] of Boston the new British commander-in-chief, General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|Sir William Howe]], launched a [[New York and New Jersey campaign|counter-offensive]] and captured New York City. After [[George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River|crossing the Delaware]] Washington engaged and routed Hessian forces at the [[Battle of Trenton]] and the British at the [[Battle of Princeton]]. After British General [[John Burgoyne|Burgoyne]] surrendered at the [[Battles of Saratoga]] in October 1777, Howe's 1777–1778 [[Philadelphia campaign]] captured that city. Washington retreated to [[Valley Forge]] during the winter of 1777–1778 where Prussian allied General [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben|von Steuben]] drilled the largely untrained [[Continental Army]] into an organized fighting unit.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "French Foreign Minister [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes|Vergennes]] saw the war as a way to create an America economically and militarily dependent on France, not Britain. Although talks on a formal alliance began in late 1776, they proceeded slowly until the Patriot victory at Saratoga in October 1777. Fears Congress might come to an early settlement with Britain resulted in France and the United States signing two treaties in February 1778. The first was a [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States)|commercial treaty]], the second a [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance]]; in return for a French guarantee of American independence, Congress agreed to join the war against Britain and defend the [[French West Indies]]. Although Spain refused to join the Franco-American alliance, in the 1779 [[Treaty of Aranjuez (1779)|Treaty of Aranjuez]] they agreed to support France in its [[Anglo-French War (1778–1783)|global war with Britain]], hoping to regain losses incurred in 1713. In other fronts in North America, Governor of Spanish Louisiana [[Bernardo de Gálvez, 1st Viscount of Galveston|Bernardo Gálvez]] routed British forces from [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Louisiana]]. The Spanish, along with [[Privateer#United States|American privateers]] supplied the 1779 American conquest of [[Illinois campaign|Western Quebec]] ([[Northwest Territory#British control|later the US Northwest Territory]]). Gálvez then expelled British forces from Mobile during the [[Battle of Fort Charlotte]] and the [[siege of Pensacola]], cutting off British military aid to their American Indian allies in the interior southeast. Howe's replacement, General [[Henry Clinton (British Army officer, born 1730)|Sir Henry Clinton]], then mounted a 1778 \"[[Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War#British campaign in the South|Southern strategy]]\" from Charleston. After [[Capture of Savannah|capturing Savannah]], defeats at the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]] and the [[Battle of Cowpens]] forced [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Cornwallis]] to retreat to [[Siege of Yorktown (1781)|Yorktown]], where his army was besieged by an allied French and American force. An attempt to resupply the garrison was repulsed by the French navy at the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]], and Cornwallis surrendered in October 1781. Although their war with France and Spain continued for another two years, the British fight against the Americans ended with the Battle of Yorktown. The [[North Ministry]] was replaced by [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Lord Rockingham]], who accepted office on the basis [[George III]] agreed to American independence. Preliminary articles were signed in November 1782, and in April 1783 Congress accepted British terms; these included independence, evacuation of British troops, cession of territory up to the [[Mississippi River]] and navigation to the sea, as well as fishing rights in Newfoundland. On September 3, 1783, the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] was signed between Great Britain and the United States, then ratified the following spring.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Prelude to revolution"], "text": "The [[French and Indian War]] and the wider conflict known as the [[Seven Years' War]] ended with the [[Peace of Paris (1763)|1763 Peace of Paris]], which expelled France from [[New France|North America]]. At the same time, the British rescinded provisions of colonial charters claiming to extend from the [[Atlantic]] to the [[Pacific]]; the [[Mississippi River]] became the dividing line between British and Spanish possessions in the Americas, with free navigation on it \"to the open sea\". More American territory changed hands in 1763 than any settlement before or after, destabilizing existing alliances and trade networks, and leading to conflict between settlers and American Indians. The [[Proclamation Line of 1763]] was intended to refocus colonial expansion north into Nova Scotia or south into Florida while separating American Indians and colonials by restricting settlement in the west. Both sides agreed with the principle but disagreed on where to set the border; keeping the peace required garrisons of regular troops along the frontier, and led to disputes with the [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies|colonial legislatures]] over who should bear the expense.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Prelude to revolution", "Taxation and legislation"], "text": "Although directly administered by the Crown, acting through a local Governor, the colonies were largely governed by native-born property owners. While external affairs were managed by [[London]], colonial [[Militia (United States)|militia]] were funded locally but with the ending of the French threat in 1763, the legislatures expected less taxation, not more. At the same time, the huge costs of the Seven Years' War meant [[Parliament of Great Britain|Parliament]] expected the colonies to fund their own defense. The outcome was a series of disputes as to how these expenses should be paid. The 1763 to 1765 [[Grenville ministry]] began by instructing the Royal Navy to stop the trade of smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in American ports. The most important was the 1733 [[Molasses Act]]; routinely ignored prior to 1763, it had a significant economic impact since 85% of New England rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses. These measures were followed by the [[Sugar Act]] and [[Stamp Act]], which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier. In July 1765, the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigs]] formed the [[First Rockingham ministry]], which repealed the Stamp Act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the New England economy, but re-asserted Parliamentary authority in the [[Declaratory Act]]. However, this did little to end the discontent; in 1768, a riot started in Boston when the authorities seized the sloop ''[[HMS Liberty (1768)|Liberty]]'' on suspicion of smuggling. Tensions escalated further in March 1770 when British troops fired on rock-throwing civilians, killing five in what became known as the [[Boston massacre|Boston Massacre]]. The Massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the [[Townshend Acts]] by the Tory-based [[North Ministry]], which came to power in January 1770 and remained in office until 1781. North insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine Parliament's right to tax the colonies; the amount was minor, but ignored the fact it was that very principle Americans objected to.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Prelude to revolution", "Taxation and legislation"], "text": "Tensions escalated following the destruction of a customs vessel in the June 1772 [[Gaspee Affair]], then came to a head in 1773. A [[Crisis of 1772|banking crisis]] led to the near-collapse of the [[East India Company]], which dominated the British economy; to support it, Parliament passed the [[Tea Act]], giving it a trading monopoly in the [[Thirteen Colonies]]. Since most American tea was smuggled by the Dutch, the Act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade, while being seen as yet another attempt to impose the principle of taxation by Parliament. Then, in December 1773, [[Sons of Liberty|The Sons of Liberty]] protested the Tea Act by disguising themselves as Mohawk Indians and dumping 342 crates of tea into the Boston Harbor. This event would be known as the [[Boston Tea Party]]. In response, Parliament passed the Coercive Acts, also called the [[Intolerable Acts]] by the colonists. While aimed specifically at Massachusetts, many in America and within the Whig opposition considered them a threat to liberty in general; it led to increased sympathy for the Patriot cause locally, as well as in Parliament and the London press.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Prelude to revolution", "Break with the British Crown"], "text": "Over the course of the 18th century, the [[Colonial government in the Thirteen Colonies#Assembly|elected lower houses]] in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their Royal Governors. Dominated by smaller landowners and merchants, these Assemblies now established ad hoc provincial legislatures, variously called Congresses, Conventions, and Conferences, effectively replacing Royal control. With the exception of [[Province of Georgia|Georgia]], twelve colonies sent representatives to the [[First Continental Congress]] to agree on a unified response to the crisis. Many of the delegates feared that an all-out boycott would result in war and sent a [[Petition to the King]] calling for the repeal of the Intolerable Acts. However, after some debate, on September 17, 1774, Congress endorsed the Massachusetts [[Suffolk Resolves]] and on October 20 passed the [[Continental Association]]; based on a draft prepared by the [[First Virginia Convention]] in August, this instituted [[economic sanctions]] against Britain. While denying its authority over internal American affairs, a faction led by [[James Duane]] and future Loyalist [[Joseph Galloway]] insisted Congress recognize Parliament's right to regulate colonial trade. Expecting concessions by the North administration, Congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott; this succeeded in reducing British imports by 97% from 1774 to 1775. However, on February 9 Parliament declared Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony. In July, the [[Restraining Acts 1775|Restraining Acts]] limited colonial trade with the [[British West Indies]] and Britain and barred New England ships from the [[History of Newfoundland and Labrador#Fishing|Newfoundland cod fisheries]]. The increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores, which each Assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense. On April 19, a British attempt to secure the Concord arsenal culminated in the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]] which began the war.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Prelude to revolution", "Political reactions"], "text": "After the Patriot victory at Concord, moderates in Congress led by [[John Dickinson]] drafted the [[Olive Branch Petition]], offering to accept royal authority in return for George III mediating in the dispute. However, since it was immediately followed by the [[Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms]], Colonial Secretary [[William Legge, 2nd Earl of Dartmouth|Dartmouth]] viewed the offer as insincere; he refused to present the petition to the king, which was therefore rejected in early September. Although constitutionally correct, since George could not oppose his own government, it disappointed those Americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute, while the hostility of his language annoyed even [[Loyalists fighting in the American Revolution|Loyalist]] members of Congress. Combined with the [[Proclamation of Rebellion]], issued on August 23 in response to the Battle at Bunker Hill, it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement. Backed by the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigs]], Parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes, fearing an aggressive policy would simply drive the Americans towards independence. However, by the end of 1774 the collapse of British authority meant both North and George III were convinced war was inevitable. After Boston, Gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements; the [[Parliament of Ireland|Irish Parliament]] approved the recruitment of new regiments, while allowing Catholics to enlist for the first time. Britain also signed a series of treaties with German states to supply [[Hessian (soldier)|additional troops]]. Within a year it had an army of over 32,000 men in America, the largest ever sent outside Europe at the time. However, the use of German mercenaries and Catholics was opposed by many in Parliament and the Protestant-dominated colonial assemblies; combined with the lack of activity by Gage, it allowed the Patriots to take control of the legislatures. Support for independence was boosted by [[Thomas Paine]]'s pamphlet ''[[Common Sense (pamphlet)|Common Sense]]'', which was widely reprinted. To draft the [[Declaration of Independence]], Congress appointed the [[Committee of Five]], consisting of [[Thomas Jefferson]], [[John Adams]], [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[Roger Sherman]] and [[Robert Livingston (chancellor)|Robert Livingston]]. Identifying the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies as \"one people\", it simultaneously dissolved political links with Britain, while including a long list of alleged violations of \"English rights\" committed by George III. On July 2, Congress voted for independence and published the declaration on July 4, which Washington read to his troops in New York City on July 9. At this point, the Revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and became a civil war. The states as represented in Congress were engaged in a struggle with Britain, but each in turn was split between Patriots and Loyalists. Patriots generally supported independence from Britain and a new national union in Congress, while Loyalists remained faithful to British rule. Estimates of numbers vary, one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed Patriots, committed Loyalists and those who were indifferent. Others calculate the spilt as 40% Patriot, 40% neutral, 20% Loyalist, but with considerable regional variations.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Prelude to revolution", "Political reactions"], "text": "At the onset of the war, the [[Second Continental Congress|Congress]] realized defeating Britain required foreign alliances and intelligence-gathering. The [[Committee of Secret Correspondence]] was formed for \"the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in Great Britain and other parts of the world\". From 1775 to 1776, it shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence, as well as employing secret agents in Europe to gather intelligence, conduct undercover operations, analyze foreign publications and initiate Patriot propaganda campaigns. Paine served as secretary, while [[Silas Deane]] was instrumental in securing French aid in Paris.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out"], "text": "As the American Revolutionary War unfolded in North America, there were two principal campaign theaters within the thirteen states, and a smaller but strategically important one [[Western theater of the American Revolutionary War|west of the Appalachian Mountains]] to the Mississippi River and north to the Great Lakes. The full-on military campaigning began in the [[Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War|states north of Maryland]], and fighting was most frequent and severest there between 1775 and 1778. Patriots achieved several strategic victories [[Southern theater of the American Revolutionary War#Early operations, 1775–1778|in the South]], the British lost their first army at Saratoga, and the French entered the war as an American ally. In the [[Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga|expanded Northern theater]] and wintering at [[Valley Forge]], General Washington observed British operations coming out of New York at the 1778 [[Battle of Monmouth]]. He then closed off British initiatives by a series of raids that contained the British army in New York City. The same year, Spanish-supplied Virginia Colonel [[George Rogers Clark]] joined by [[French colonization of the Americas|Francophone settlers]] and their Indian allies conquered [[Province of Quebec|Western Quebec]], the US [[Northwest Territory]]. Starting in 1779, the British initiated a [[George Washington in the American Revolution#British southern strategy|southern strategy]] to begin at [[History of Savannah, Georgia#British colony|Savannah]], gather Loyalist support, and reoccupy Patriot-controlled territory north to [[Chesapeake Colonies|Chesapeake Bay]]. Initially the British were successful, and the Americans lost an entire army at the [[siege of Charleston]], which caused a severe setback for Patriots in the region. But then British maneuvering north led to a combined American and French force cornering a second British army at [[Siege of Yorktown (1781)|Battle of Yorktown]], and their surrender effectively ended the Revolutionary War.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "Early engagements"], "text": "On April 14, 1775, Sir [[Thomas Gage]], who was [[Commander-in-Chief, North America]] from 1763 to 1775 and appointed Governor of [[Province of Massachusetts|Massachusetts]] in 1774, received orders from Britain to take action against the Patriots. Acting on intelligence, Gage planned to destroy stores of militia ordnance at [[Concord, Massachusetts|Concord]] by way of [[Lexington, Massachusetts|Lexington]] and to capture [[John Hancock]] and [[Samuel Adams]], considered the two principal instigators of the rebellion. The operation was to commence before midnight on April 19 and surprise the militia while completing their objectives and retreating to Boston before multitudes of patriot militias could respond. However, [[Intelligence in the American Revolutionary War|Patriot intelligence]], which [[Paul Revere]] had helped organize, learned of Gage's intentions, and Revere alerted Captain [[John Parker (captain)|John Parker]], commander of the Concord militia. The first action of the war was a [[Shot heard round the world|brief skirmish at Lexington]], followed by a full-scale battle during the [[Battles of Lexington and Concord]]. After suffering some 300 casualties, British troops withdrew to Boston, followed by local militia who [[Siege of Boston|laid siege to the city]]. The next month 4,500 British reinforcements arrived with generals [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]], [[John Burgoyne]], and [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]]. On June 17, they seized the [[Charlestown Peninsula]] at the [[Battle of Bunker Hill]], a frontal assault in which they suffered over 1,000 casualties. Dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little, Gage appealed to London to send a large army to suppress the revolt, but instead they replaced him and Howe took command. On June 14, 1775, the Continental Congress officially assumed command of patriot forces in Boston, giving birth to the Continental Army, which now needed a Commander-in-Chief. To lead Patriot forces surrounding Boston, Congressional leader [[John Adams]] of [[Massachusetts in the American Revolution|Massachusetts]] nominated [[Virginia in the American Revolution|Virginia delegate]] [[George Washington in the American Revolution|George Washington]] for commander-in-chief of the [[Continental Army]] in June 1775. At this time the delegates were so impressed with Washington that his appointment was considered a done deal. On June 16, [[John Hancock]] officially announced that Washington was henceforth \"General and Commander in Chief of the army of the United Colonies.\" Washington had previously commanded Virginia militia regiments in British combat commands during the [[French and Indian War]]. He proceeded to Boston to assume field command of the ongoing siege on July 3. Howe did not engage in a standoff with Washington, and Washington made no plan to assault the city; instead, the Americans [[Fortification of Dorchester Heights|fortified Dorchester Heights]].", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "Early engagements"], "text": "In early March 1776, Colonel [[Henry Knox]] arrived with [[Noble train of artillery|heavy artillery]] captured from a [[Capture of Fort Ticonderoga|raid on Fort Ticonderoga]]. Under the cover of darkness Washington placed his artillery atop Dorchester Heights March 5, threatening Boston and the British ships in the harbor. Howe feared another battle like Bunker Hill, so he evacuated Boston. The British were permitted to withdraw without further casualties on March 17 (known as [[Evacuation Day (Massachusetts)|Evacuation Day]]), and they sailed to [[Nova Scotia in the American Revolution|Halifax, Nova Scotia]]. Washington then moved his army south to [[History of New York City#American Revolution|New York]]. Beginning in August 1775, [[Privateer#United States|American privateers]] began raiding villages in Nova Scotia, first at [[Raid on St. John (1775)|Saint John]], then [[Raid on Charlottetown (1775)|Charlottetown]] and [[Raid on Yarmouth, Nova Scotia (1775)|Yarmouth]]. In 1776, [[John Paul Jones]] and [[Jonathan Eddy]] raided [[Raid on Canso (1776)|Canso]] and assaulted [[Battle of Fort Cumberland|Fort Cumberland]] respectively.  British officials in [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Quebec]] began negotiating with the [[Iroquois#American Revolution|Iroquois]] for their support, while the Americans urged them to maintain neutrality. Aware of Native American leanings toward the British and fearing an Anglo-Indian attack from Canada, Congress authorized an invasion of Quebec in April 1775. The second American expedition into the former French territory was defeated at the [[Battle of Quebec (1775)|Battle of Quebec]] on December 31, and after a loose siege the Americans withdrew on May 6, 1776. A failed American counter-attack at [[Battle of Trois-Rivières|Trois-Rivières]] on June 8 ended their operations in Quebec. However, British pursuit was blocked by American ships on Lake Champlain until they were cleared on October 11 at the [[Battle of Valcour Island]]. The American troops were forced to withdraw to [[Fort Ticonderoga]], ending the campaign. In November 1776, a Massachusetts-sponsored uprising in Nova Scotia during the [[Battle of Fort Cumberland (1776)|Battle of Fort Cumberland]] was dispersed. The cumulative failures cost the Patriots support in local public opinion, and aggressive anti-Loyalist policies in the [[New England colonies]] alienated the Canadians. The Patriots made no further attempts to invade north. In [[Colony of Virginia|Virginia]], Royal Governor [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]] attempted to [[Gunpowder Incident|disarm the Assembly's militia]] as tensions increased, although no fighting broke out. He [[Dunmore's Proclamation|issued a proclamation]] on November 7, 1775, promising freedom for [[Slavery in the colonial United States|slaves]] who fled their Patriot masters to fight for the Crown. Dunmore's troops were repulsed at the [[Battle of Great Bridge]], and Dunmore fled to British ships anchored off the nearby port at Norfolk. The [[Third Virginia Convention]] refused to disband its militia or accept martial law. In the last Royal Virginia Assembly session, speaker [[Peyton Randolph]] did not respond to Lord Dunmore concerning Parliament's [[Conciliatory Resolution]]. Negotiations failed in part because Randolph was also president of the [[Virginia Conventions#First through fourth Revolutionary conventions|first Virginia Conventions of Burgesses]], and he deferred to the [[First Continental Congress]], where he was also President. Dunmore ordered the ship's crews to [[Burning of Norfolk|burn Norfolk]] on January 1, 1776.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "Early engagements"], "text": "The [[siege of Savage's Old Fields]] began on November 19 in [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]] between Loyalist and Patriot militias, and the Loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the [[Snow Campaign]]. Loyalists were recruited in [[Province of North Carolina|North Carolina]] to reassert colonial rule in the South, but they were decisively defeated in the [[Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge]] and Loyalist sentiment was subdued. A troop of British [[British Army during the American Revolutionary War|regulars]] set out to reconquer [[South Carolina in the American Revolution|South Carolina]] and launched an attack on Charleston during the [[Battle of Sullivan's Island]] on June 28, 1776, but it failed and left the South in Patriot control until 1780. Shortages in Patriot gunpowder led Congress to authorize an expedition against [[The Bahamas#18th century|the Bahamas]] in the British West Indies to secure additional ordnance there. On March 3, 1776, the Americans landed and engaged the British at the [[Raid of Nassau]], but the local militia offered no resistance. The expedition confiscated what supplies they could and sailed for home on March 17. A month later after a brief skirmish at the [[Battle of Block Island]] with the Royal Navy frigate , the squadron returned to the base of American naval operations during the Revolution at [[New London, Connecticut#American Revolution|New London]], [[History of Connecticut#The American Revolution (1775–1789)|Connecticut]].", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "British New York counter-offensive"], "text": "After regrouping at [[History of Halifax (former city)#The American Revolution|Halifax, Nova Scotia]], William Howe was determined to take the fight to the Americans. He sailed for New York in June 1776 and began landing troops on [[Staten Island#18th century and the American Revolution|Staten Island]] near the entrance to [[New York Harbor#Colonial era|New York Harbor]] on July 2. The Americans rejected Howe's informal attempt to negotiate peace on July 30; Washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined British regular troops. On August 12, 1776, Patriot [[Thomas Knowlton]] was given orders to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions. [[Knowlton's Rangers]], which included [[Nathan Hale]], became the Army's first intelligence unit. When Washington was driven off Long Island he soon realized that he would need more than military might and amateur spies to defeat the British. He was committed to professionalizing military intelligence, and with the aid of [[Benjamin Tallmadge]], they launched the six-man [[Culper Ring|Culper spy ring]]. The efforts of Washington and the Culper Spy Ring substantially increased effective allocation and deployment of Continental regiments in the field. Over the course of the war Washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on intelligence operations. Washington split his army into positions on [[Manhattan#American Revolution and the early United States|Manhattan Island]] and across the [[East River#Tributaries|East River]] in western [[Long Island#18th and 19th centuries|Long Island]]. On August 27 at the Battle of Long Island, Howe outflanked Washington and forced him back to [[Brooklyn Heights#Early settlement|Brooklyn Heights]], but he did not attempt to encircle Washington's forces. Through the night of August 28, General [[Henry Knox]] bombarded the British. Knowing they were up against overwhelming odds, Washington ordered the assembly of a war council on August 29; all agreed to retreat to Manhattan. Washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the East River to Manhattan on flat-bottomed [[Bateau|freight boats]] without any losses in men or ordnance, leaving General [[Thomas Mifflin]]'s regiments as a rearguard. General Howe officially met with a delegation from Congress at the September [[Staten Island Peace Conference]], but it failed to conclude peace as the British delegates only had the authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence. On September 15, Howe seized control of New York City when the British [[Landing at Kip's Bay|landed at Kip's Bay]] and unsuccessfully engaged the Americans at the [[Battle of Harlem Heights]] the following day. On October 18 Howe failed to encircle the Americans at the [[Battle of Pell's Point]], and the Americans withdrew. Howe declined to close with Washington's army on October 28 at the [[Battle of White Plains]], and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "British New York counter-offensive"], "text": "Washington's retreat isolated his remaining forces and the British captured [[Battle of Fort Washington|Fort Washington]] on November 16. The British victory there amounted to Washington's most disastrous defeat with the loss of 3,000 prisoners. The remaining American regiments on Long Island fell back four days later. General [[Henry Clinton (American War of Independence)|Sir Henry Clinton]] wanted to pursue Washington's disorganized army, but he was first required to commit 6,000 troops to capture [[History of Rhode Island#Revolutionary era, 1775–1790|Newport, Rhode Island]] to secure the Loyalist port. General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]] pursued Washington, but Howe ordered him to halt, leaving Washington unmolested. The outlook was bleak for the American cause: the reduced army had dwindled to fewer than 5,000 men and would be reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year. Popular support wavered, morale declined, and Congress abandoned [[History of Philadelphia#Revolution|Philadelphia]] and moved to [[Baltimore#Colonial period|Baltimore]]. Loyalist activity surged in the wake of the American defeat, especially in [[History of New York (state)#New York in the American Revolution|New York state]]. In London, news of the victorious Long Island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital. Public support reached a peak, and King George III awarded the [[Order of the Bath]] to Howe. Strategic deficiencies among Patriot forces were evident: Washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one, his inexperienced staff misread the military situation, and American troops fled in the face of enemy fire. The successes led to predictions that the British could win within a year. In the meantime, the British established winter quarters in the New York City area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring. Two weeks after Congress withdrew to safer [[Maryland in the American Revolution#American Revolution|Maryland]], Washington [[Washington's crossing of the Delaware River|crossed]] the ice-choked Delaware River about 30 miles upriver from [[History of Philadelphia|Philadelphia]] on the night of December 25–26, 1776. His approach over frozen trails surprised [[Hessian (soldier)|Hessian]] Colonel [[Johann Rall]]. The Continentals overwhelmed the Hessian garrison at [[Battle of Trenton|Trenton, New Jersey]], and took 900 prisoners. The celebrated victory rescued the American army's flagging morale, gave new hope to the Patriot cause, and dispelled much of the fear of professional Hessian \"mercenaries\". Cornwallis marched to retake Trenton but was repulsed at the [[Battle of the Assunpink Creek]]; in the night of January 2, Washington outmaneuvered Cornwallis and defeated his rearguard in the [[Battle of Princeton]] the following day. The two victories helped to convince the French that the Americans were worthy military allies. Washington entered winter quarters from January to May 1778 at [[Morristown, New Jersey#Eighteenth century|Morristown, New Jersey]], and he received the Congressional direction to inoculate all Continental troops against [[smallpox]]. Although a [[Forage War]] between the armies continued until March, Howe did not attempt to attack the Americans over the winter of 1776–1777.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "British northern strategy fails"], "text": "The 1776 campaign demonstrated regaining New England would be a prolonged affair, which led to a change in British strategy. This involved isolating the north from the rest of the country by taking control of the [[Hudson River]], allowing them to focus on the south where Loyalist support was believed to be substantial. In December 1776, Howe wrote to the Colonial Secretary [[George Germain, 1st Viscount Sackville|Lord Germain]], proposing a limited offensive against Philadelphia, while a second force moved down the Hudson from Canada. Germain received this on February 23, 1777, followed a few days later by a memorandum from Burgoyne, then in London on leave. Burgoyne supplied several alternatives, all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive, with Howe remaining on the defensive. The option selected required him to lead the main force south from [[Montreal]] down the Hudson Valley, while a detachment under [[Barry St. Leger]] moved east from Lake Ontario. The two would meet at [[History of Albany, New York (1664–1784)#1744−American Revolution|Albany]], leaving Howe to decide whether to join them. Reasonable in principle, this did not account for the logistical difficulties involved and Burgoyne erroneously assumed Howe would remain on the defensive; Germain's failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack [[Philadelphia campaign|Philadelphia]] instead. Burgoyne set out on June 14, 1777, with a mixed force of British regulars, German auxiliaries and Canadian militia, and [[Siege of Fort Ticonderoga (1777)|captured Fort Ticonderoga]] on July 5. As General [[Horatio Gates]] retreated, his troops blocked roads, destroyed bridges, dammed streams, and stripped the area of food. This slowed Burgoyne's progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions; on one of these, more than 700 British troops were captured at the [[Battle of Bennington]] on August 16. St Leger moved east and besieged [[Siege of Fort Stanwix|Fort Stanwix]]; despite defeating an American relief force at the [[Battle of Oriskany]] on August 6, he was abandoned by his Indian allies and withdrew to Quebec on August 22. Now isolated and outnumbered by Gates, Burgoyne continued onto Albany rather than retreating to Fort Ticonderoga, reaching [[Saratoga, New York|Saratoga]] on September 13. He constructed defenses around the town and asked Clinton for support while constructing defenses around the town. Morale among his troops rapidly declined, and an unsuccessful attempt to break past Gates at the [[Battles of Saratoga#First Saratoga|Battle of Freeman Farms]] on September 19 resulted in 600 British casualties. When Clinton advised he could not reach them, Burgoyne's subordinates advised retreat; a [[reconnaissance in force]] on October 7 was repulsed by Gates at the [[Battles of Saratoga#Second Saratoga|Battle of Bemis Heights]], forcing them back into Saratoga with heavy losses. By October 11, all hope of escape had vanished; persistent rain reduced the camp to a \"squalid hell\" of mud and starving cattle, supplies were dangerously low and many of the wounded in agony. Burgoyne capitulated on October 17; around 6,222 soldiers, including German forces commanded by [[Friedrich Adolf Riedesel|General Riedesel]], surrendered their arms before being taken to Boston, where they were to be transported to England.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "British northern strategy fails"], "text": "After securing additional supplies, Howe made another attempt on Philadelphia by landing his troops in [[Chesapeake Bay]] on August 24. He now compounded failure to support Burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent, defeating Washington at the [[Battle of Brandywine]] on September 11, then allowing him to withdraw in good order. After dispersing an American detachment at [[Battle of Paoli|Paoli]] on September 20, Cornwallis occupied Philadelphia on September 26, with the main force of 9,000 under Howe based just to the north at [[Germantown, Philadelphia|Germantown]]. Here they were [[Battle of Germantown|attacked]] by Washington on October 4, but repulsed. To prevent Howe's forces in Philadelphia being resupplied by sea, the Patriots erected [[Fort Mifflin]] and nearby [[Fort Mercer]] on the east and west banks of the Delaware respectively, and placed [[Cheval de frise|obstacles]] in the river south of the city. This was supported by a small flotilla of [[Continental Navy]] ships on the Delaware, supplemented by the [[Pennsylvania State Navy]], commanded by [[John Hazelwood]]. An attempt by the Royal Navy to take the forts in the October 20 to 22 [[Battle of Red Bank]] failed; a second attack captured Fort Mifflin on November 16, while Fort Mercer was abandoned two days later when Cornwallis breached the walls. His supply lines secured, Howe tried to tempt Washington into giving battle, but after inconclusive skirmishing at the [[Battle of White Marsh]] from December 5 to 8, he withdrew to Philadelphia for the winter. On December 19, the Americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at [[Valley Forge]]; while Washington's domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with Gates' victory at Saratoga, foreign observers such as Frederick the Great were equally impressed with Germantown, which demonstrated resilience and determination. Over the winter, poor conditions, supply problems and low morale resulted in 2,000 deaths, with another 3,000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes. However, Baron [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben]] took the opportunity to introduce [[Prussian Army]] drill and infantry tactics to the entire Continental Army; he did this by training \"model companies\" in each regiment, who then instructed their home units. Despite Valley Forge being only twenty miles away, Howe made no effort to attack their camp, an action some critics argue could have ended the war.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "Foreign intervention"], "text": "Like his predecessors, French foreign minister [[Charles Gravier, comte de Vergennes|Vergennes]] considered the 1763 Peace a national humiliation and viewed the war as an opportunity to weaken Britain. He initially avoided open conflict, but allowed American ships to take on cargoes in French ports, a technical violation of neutrality. Although public opinion favored the American cause, [[Controller-General of Finances|Finance Minister]] [[Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune|Turgot]] argued they did not need French help to gain independence and war was too expensive. Instead, Vergennes persuaded [[Louis XVI]] to secretly fund a [[Roderigue Hortalez and Company|government front company]] to purchase munitions for the Patriots, carried in neutral Dutch ships and imported through [[Sint Eustatius]] in the Caribbean. Many Americans opposed a French alliance, fearing to \"exchange one tyranny for another\", but this changed after a series of military setbacks in early 1776. As France had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with Britain, Congress had three choices; making peace on British terms, continuing the struggle on their own, or proclaiming independence, guaranteed by France. Although the Declaration of Independence in July 1776 had wide public support, Adams was among those reluctant to pay the price of an alliance with France, and over 20% of Congressmen voted against it. Congress agreed to the treaty with reluctance and as the war moved in their favor increasingly lost interest in it. [[Silas Deane]] was sent to Paris to begin negotiations with Vergennes, whose key objectives were replacing Britain as the United States' primary commercial and military partner, while securing the [[French West Indies]] from American expansion. These islands were extremely valuable; in 1772, the value of sugar and coffee produced by [[Saint-Domingue]] on its own exceeded that of all American exports combined. Talks progressed slowly until October 1777, when British defeat at Saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced Vergennes only a permanent alliance could prevent the \"disaster\" of Anglo-American rapprochement. Assurances of formal French support allowed Congress to reject the Carlisle Peace Commission and insist on nothing short of complete independence. On February 6, 1778, France and the United States signed the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States)|Treaty of Amity and Commerce]] regulating trade between the two countries, followed by a defensive military alliance against Britain, the [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance]]. In return for French guarantees of American independence, Congress undertook to defend their interests in the West Indies, while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace; conflict over these provisions would lead to the 1798 to 1800 [[Quasi-War]]. [[Charles III of Spain]] was invited to join on the same terms but refused, largely due to concerns over the impact of the Revolution on Spanish colonies in the Americas. Spain had complained on multiple occasions about encroachment by American settlers into [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Louisiana]], a problem that could only get worse once the United States replaced Britain.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "Foreign intervention"], "text": "Although Spain ultimately made important contributions to American success, in the [[Treaty of Aranjuez (1779)]], Charles agreed only to support [[Anglo-French War (1778–1783)|France's war with Britain]] outside America, in return for help in recovering [[Gibraltar]], [[Menorca]] and [[Spanish Florida]]. The terms were confidential since several conflicted with American aims; for example, the French claimed exclusive control of the Newfoundland cod fisheries, a non-negotiable for colonies like Massachusetts. One less well-known impact of this agreement was the abiding American distrust of 'foreign entanglements'; the US would not sign another treaty until the [[NATO]] agreement in 1949. This was because the US had agreed not to make peace without France, while Aranjuez committed France to keep fighting until Spain recovered Gibraltar, effectively making it a condition of US independence without the knowledge of Congress. To encourage French participation in the struggle for independence, the US representative in Paris, [[Silas Deane]] promised promotion and command positions to any French officer who joined the Continental Army. Although many proved incompetent, one outstanding exception was [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette]], whom Congress appointed a major General. In addition to his military ability, Lafayette showed considerable political skill in building support for Washington among his officers and within Congress, liaising with French army and naval commanders, and promoting the Patriot cause in France. When the war started, Britain tried to borrow the Dutch-based [[Scots Brigade]] for service in America, but pro-Patriot sentiment led the [[States General of the Netherlands|States General]] to refuse. Although the Republic was no longer a major power, prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War|declared war]] in December 1780, a conflict that proved disastrous to the Dutch economy. The Dutch were also excluded from the [[First League of Armed Neutrality]], formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France. The British government failed to take into account the strength of the American merchant marine and support from European countries, which allowed the colonies to import munitions and continue trading with relative impunity. While well aware of this, the North administration delayed placing the Royal Navy on a war footing for cost reasons; this prevented the institution of an effective blockade and restricted them to ineffectual diplomatic protests. Traditional British policy was to employ European land-based allies to divert the opposition, a role filled by Prussia in the Seven Years' War; in 1778, they were diplomatically isolated and faced war on multiple fronts.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "Foreign intervention"], "text": "Meanwhile, George III had given up on subduing America while Britain had a European war to fight. He did not welcome war with France, but he believed the [[Annus Mirabilis of 1759|British victories over France]] in the Seven Years' War as a reason to believe in ultimate victory over France. Britain could not find a powerful ally among the Great Powers to engage France on the European continent. Britain subsequently changed its focus into the Caribbean theater, and diverted major military resources away from America.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "Stalemate in the North"], "text": "At the end of 1777, Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton on May 24, 1778; with French entry into the war, he was ordered to consolidate his forces in New York. On June 18, the British departed Philadelphia with the reinvigorated Americans in pursuit; the [[Battle of Monmouth]] on June 28 was inconclusive but boosted Patriot morale. Washington had rallied Charles Lee's broken regiments, the Continentals repulsed British bayonet charges, the British rear guard lost perhaps 50 per-cent more casualties, and the Americans held the field at the end of the day. That midnight, the newly installed Clinton continued his retreat to New York. A French naval force under Admiral [[Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing]] was sent to assist Washington; deciding New York was too formidable a target, in August they launched a combined attack on Newport, with General [[John Sullivan (general)|John Sullivan]] commanding land forces. The resulting [[Battle of Rhode Island]] was indecisive; badly damaged by a storm, the French withdrew to avoid putting their ships at risk. Further activity was limited to British raids on [[Battle of Chestnut Neck|Chestnut Neck]] and [[The Affair at Little Egg Harbor|Little Egg Harbor]] in October. In July 1779, the Americans captured British positions at [[Battle of Stony Point|Stony Point]] and [[Battle of Paulus Hook|Paulus Hook]]. Clinton unsuccessfully tried to tempt Washington into a decisive engagement by sending General [[William Tryon]] to [[Tryon's raid|raid Connecticut]]. In July, a large American naval operation, the [[Penobscot Expedition]], attempted to retake [[District of Maine|Maine]], then part of Massachusetts, but was defeated. Persistent [[Northern theater of the American Revolutionary War after Saratoga#Frontier Raids|Iroquois raids]] along the border with Quebec led to the punitive [[Sullivan Expedition]] in April 1779, destroying many settlements but failing to stop them. During the winter of 1779–1780, the Continental Army suffered greater hardships than at Valley Forge. Morale was poor, public support fell away in the long war, the [[Continental dollar]] was virtually worthless, the army was plagued with supply problems, desertion was common, and mutinies occurred in the [[Pennsylvania Line Mutiny|Pennsylvania Line]] and [[Pompton Mutiny|New Jersey Line]] regiments over the conditions in early 1780. In June 1780, Clinton sent 6,000 men under [[Wilhelm von Knyphausen]] to retake New Jersey, but they were halted by local militia at the [[Battle of Connecticut Farms]]; although the Americans withdrew, Knyphausen felt he was not strong enough to engage Washington's main force and retreated. A second attempt two weeks later ended in a British defeat at the [[Battle of Springfield (1780)|Battle of Springfield]], effectively ending their ambitions in New Jersey. In July, Washington appointed [[Benedict Arnold]] commander of [[West Point]]; his attempt to betray the fort to the British failed due to incompetent planning, and the plot was revealed when his British contact [[John André]] was captured and later executed. Arnold escaped to New York and switched sides, an action justified in a pamphlet addressed \"[[To the Inhabitants of America]]\"; the Patriots condemned his betrayal, while he found himself almost as unpopular with the British.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "Stalemate in the North"], "text": "The war to the west of the [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachians]] was largely confined to skirmishing and raids. In February 1778, an expedition of militia to destroy British military supplies in settlements along the [[Cuyahoga River]] was halted by adverse weather. Later in the year, a [[Illinois campaign|second campaign]] was undertaken to seize the [[Illinois Country]] from the British. Virginia militia, ''[[Canadien]]'' settlers, and Indian allies commanded by Colonel [[George Rogers Clark]] captured [[Kaskaskia, Illinois|Kaskaskia]] on July 4 then secured [[Vincennes, Indiana|Vincennes]], though Vincennes was recaptured by Quebec Governor [[Henry Hamilton (colonial administrator)|Henry Hamilton]]. In early 1779, the Virginians counterattacked in the [[siege of Fort Vincennes]] and took Hamilton prisoner. Clark secured western [[Quebec Act|British Quebec]] as the American [[Northwest Territory]] in the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|Treaty of Paris]] concluding the war. On May 25, 1780, British Colonel Henry Bird [[Bird's invasion of Kentucky|invaded Kentucky]] as part of a wider operation to clear American resistance from Quebec to the Gulf coast. Their Pensacola advance on New Orleans was overcome by Spanish Governor Gálvez's offensive on Mobile. Simultaneous British attacks were repulsed on [[Battle of St. Louis|St. Louis]] by the Spanish Lieutenant Governor [[Fernando de Leyba|de Leyba]], and on the [[Illinois County, Virginia|Virginia county courthouse]] at [[Cahokia, Illinois#History|Cahokia]] by Lieutenant Colonel Clark. The British initiative under Bird from Detroit was ended at the rumored approach of Clark. The scale of violence in the [[Licking River (Kentucky)#History|Licking River Valley]], such as during the [[Battle of Blue Licks]], was extreme \"even for frontier standards\". It led to men of English and German settlements to join Clark's militia when the British and their auxiliaries withdrew to the Great Lakes. The Americans responded with a major offensive along the [[Mad River (Ohio)|Mad River]] in August which met with some success in the [[Battle of Piqua]] but did not end Indian raids. French soldier [[Augustin de La Balme]] led a Canadian militia in an attempt to capture Detroit, but they dispersed when [[Miami tribe|Miami Indians]] led by [[Little Turtle]] attacked the encamped settlers on November 5. The war in the west had become a stalemate with the British garrison sitting in Detroit and the Virginians expanding westward settlements north of the Ohio River in the face of British-allied Indian resistance.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "War in the South"], "text": "The \"Southern Strategy\" was developed by Lord Germain, based on input from London-based Loyalists like Joseph Galloway. They argued it made no sense to fight the Patriots in the north where they were strongest, while the New England economy was reliant on trade with Britain, regardless of who governed it. On the other hand, duties on tobacco made the South far more profitable for Britain, while local support meant securing it required small numbers of regular troops. Victory would leave a truncated United States facing British possessions in the south, Canada to the north, and Ohio on their western border; with the Atlantic seaboard controlled by the Royal Navy, Congress would be forced to agree to terms. However, assumptions about the level of Loyalist support proved wildly optimistic. Germain accordingly ordered [[Augustine Prévost]], the British commander in [[East Florida]], to advance into [[Georgia in the American Revolution#Return of the British Army|Georgia]] in December 1778. [[Archibald Campbell (British Army officer, born 1739)|Lieutenant-Colonel Archibald Campbell]], an experienced officer taken prisoner earlier in the war before being exchanged for Ethan Allen, [[Capture of Savannah|captured Savannah]] on December 29, 1778. He recruited a Loyalist militia of nearly 1,100, many of whom allegedly joined only after Campbell threatened to confiscate their property. Poor motivation and training made them unreliable troops, as demonstrated in their defeat by Patriot militia at the [[Battle of Kettle Creek]] on February 14, 1779, although this was offset by British victory at [[Battle of Brier Creek|Brier Creek]] on March 3. In June, Prévost launched an abortive assault on Charleston, before retreating to Savannah, an operation notorious for widespread looting by British troops that enraged both Loyalists and Patriots. In October, a joint French and American operation under Admiral [[Charles Henri Hector d'Estaing|d'Estaing]] and General [[Benjamin Lincoln]] failed to [[Siege of Savannah|recapture Savannah]]. Prévost was replaced by [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Lord Cornwallis]], who assumed responsibility for Germain's strategy; he soon realized estimates of Loyalist support were considerably over-stated, and he needed far larger numbers of regular forces. Reinforced by Clinton, his troops [[Siege of Charleston|captured Charleston]] in May 1780, inflicting the most serious Patriot defeat of the war; over 5,000 prisoners were taken and the Continental Army in the south effectively destroyed. On May 29, Loyalist regular [[Banastre Tarleton]] defeated an American force of 400 at the [[Battle of Waxhaws]]; over 120 were killed, many allegedly after surrendering. Responsibility is disputed, Loyalists claiming Tarleton was shot at while negotiating terms of surrender, but it was later used as a recruiting tool by the Patriots.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "War in the South"], "text": "Clinton returned to New York, leaving Cornwallis to oversee the south; despite their success, the two men left barely on speaking terms, with dire consequences for the future conduct of the war. The Southern strategy depended on local support, but this was undermined by a series of coercive measures. Previously, captured Patriots were sent home after swearing not to take up arms against the king; they were now required to fight their former comrades, while the confiscation of Patriot-owned plantations led formerly neutral \"[[grandee]]\" to side with them. Skirmishes at [[Battle of Williamson's Plantation|Williamson's Plantation]], Cedar Springs, [[Battle of Rocky Mount|Rocky Mount]], and [[Battle of Hanging Rock|Hanging Rock]] signaled widespread resistance to the new oaths throughout South Carolina. In July, Congress appointed General [[Horatio Gates]] commander in the south; he was defeated at the [[Battle of Camden]] on August 16, leaving Cornwallis free to enter North Carolina. Despite battlefield success, the British could not control the countryside and Patriot attacks continued; before moving north, Cornwallis sent Loyalist militia under Major [[Patrick Ferguson]] to cover his left flank, leaving their forces too far apart to provide mutual support. In early October, Ferguson was defeated at the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]], dispersing organized Loyalist resistance in the region. Despite this, Cornwallis continued into North Carolina hoping for Loyalist support, while Washington replaced Gates with General [[Nathanael Greene]] in December 1780. Greene divided his army, leading his main force southeast pursued by Cornwallis; a detachment was sent southwest under [[Daniel Morgan]], who defeated Tarleton's [[British Legion (American Revolution)|British Legion]] at [[Battle of Cowpens|Cowpens]] on January 17, 1781, nearly eliminating it as a fighting force. The Patriots now held the initiative in the south, with the exception of a [[Raid of Richmond|raid on Richmond]] led by Benedict Arnold in January 1781. Greene led Cornwallis on a series of countermarches around North Carolina; by early March, the British were exhausted and short of supplies and Greene felt strong enough to fight the [[Battle of Guilford Court House]] on March 15. Although victorious, Cornwallis suffered heavy casualties and retreated to [[Wilmington, North Carolina#Revolutionary era|Wilmington, North Carolina]] seeking supplies and reinforcements. The Patriots now controlled most of the Carolinas and Georgia outside the coastal areas; after a minor reversal at the [[Battle of Hobkirk's Hill]], they recaptured [[Siege of Fort Watson|Fort Watson]] and [[Siege of Fort Motte|Fort Motte]] on April 15. On June 6, Brigadier General [[Andrew Pickens (congressman)|Andrew Pickens]] captured [[Siege of Augusta|Augusta]], leaving the British in Georgia confined to Charleston and Savannah. The assumption Loyalists would do most of the fighting left the British short of troops and battlefield victories came at the cost of losses they could not replace. Despite halting Greene's advance at the [[Battle of Eutaw Springs]] on September 8, Cornwallis withdrew to Charleston with little to show for his campaign.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "Western campaign"], "text": "When Spain joined France's war against Britain in 1779, [[Treaty of Aranjuez (1779)|their treaty]] specifically excluded Spanish military action in North America. However, from the beginning of the war, [[Bernardo de Gálvez, 1st Viscount of Galveston|Bernardo de Gálvez]], the [[List of colonial governors of Louisiana|Governor of Spanish Louisiana]], allowed the Americans to import supplies and munitions into [[History of New Orleans#Spanish interregnum|New Orleans]], then ship them to [[History of Pittsburgh#Gateway to the West (1763–1799)|Pittsburgh]]. This provided an alternative transportation route for the Continental Army, bypassing the British blockade of the Atlantic Coast. The trade was organized by [[Oliver Pollock]], a successful merchant in Havana and New Orleans who was appointed US \"commercial agent\". It also helped support the American [[Western theater of the American Revolutionary War|campaign in the west]]; in the 1778 [[Illinois campaign]], militia under General [[George Rogers Clark]] cleared the British from what was then part of [[Province of Quebec (1763–1791)|Quebec]], creating [[Illinois County, Virginia]]. Despite official neutrality, Gálvez initiated offensive operations against British outposts. First, he cleared British garrisons in [[History of Baton Rouge, Louisiana#1763–1779: British period|Baton Rouge]], [[History of Louisiana#Spanish interregnum (1763–1803)|Louisiana]], [[Fort Bute]], and [[History of Natchez, Mississippi#Colonial history (1716–1783)|Natchez]], [[History of Mississippi#European colonial period|Mississippi]], and captured five forts. In doing so, Gálvez opened navigation on the Mississippi River north to the American settlement in Pittsburg. In 1781, Galvez and Pollock [[Gulf Coast campaign|campaigned east along the Gulf Coast]] to secure West Florida, including British-held [[Battle of Fort Charlotte|Mobile]] and [[Siege of Pensacola|Pensacola]]. The Spanish operations crippled the British supply of armaments to British Indian allies, which effectively suspended a military alliance to attack settlers between the Mississippi River and the Appalachian Mountains.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["War breaks out", "British defeat in America"], "text": "Clinton spent most of 1781 based in New York City; he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy, partly due to his difficult relationship with Admiral [[Marriot Arbuthnot]]. In Charleston, Cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for a campaign in Virginia, which he hoped would isolate Greene's army in the Carolinas and cause the collapse of Patriot resistance in the South. This was approved by Lord Germain in London, but neither of them informed Clinton. Washington and [[Jean-Baptiste Donatien de Vimeur, comte de Rochambeau|Rochambeau]] now discussed their options; the former wanted to attack New York, the latter Virginia, where Cornwallis' forces were less well-established and thus easier to defeat. Washington eventually gave way and Lafayette took a combined Franco-American force into Virginia, but Clinton misinterpreted his movements as preparations for an attack on New York. Concerned by this threat, he instructed Cornwallis to establish a fortified sea base where the Royal Navy could evacuate his troops to help defend New York. When Lafayette entered Virginia, Cornwallis complied with Clinton's orders and withdrew to [[Yorktown, Virginia|Yorktown]], where he constructed strong defenses and awaited evacuation. An agreement by the Spanish navy to defend the French West Indies allowed Admiral [[François Joseph Paul de Grasse|de Grasse]] to relocate to the Atlantic seaboard, a move Arbuthnot did not anticipate. This provided Lafayette naval support, while the failure of previous combined operations at Newport and Savannah meant their co-ordination was planned more carefully. Despite repeated urging from his subordinates, Cornwallis made no attempt to engage Lafayette before he could establish siege lines. Even worse, expecting to be withdrawn within a few days he abandoned the outer defenses, which were promptly occupied by the besiegers and hastened British defeat. On August 31, a British fleet under [[Thomas Graves, 1st Baron Graves|Thomas Graves]] left New York for Yorktown. After landing troops and munitions for the besiegers on August 30, de Grasse had remained in Chesapeake Bay and intercepted him on September 5; although the [[Battle of the Chesapeake]] was indecisive in terms of losses, Graves was forced to retreat, leaving Cornwallis isolated. An attempted breakout over the York River at [[Gloucester County, Virginia#Gloucester County formation and divisions|Gloucester Point]] failed due to bad weather. Under heavy bombardment with dwindling supplies, Cornwallis felt his situation was hopeless and on October 16 sent emissaries to Washington to negotiate surrender; after twelve hours of negotiations, these were finalized the next day. Although Britain's global conflict with France and Spain continued for another two years, Yorktown was the final engagement of the American war. Responsibility for defeat was the subject of fierce public debate between Cornwallis, Clinton and Germain. Despite criticism from his junior officers, Cornwallis retained the confidence of his peers and later held a series of senior government positions; Clinton ultimately took most of the blame and spent the rest of his life in obscurity.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders"], "text": "To win their insurrection, the Americans needed to outlast the British will to continue the fight. To restore the empire, the British had to defeat the Continental Army in the early months, and compel the Congress to dissolve itself. Historian Terry M. Mays identifies three separate types of warfare, the first being a colonial conflict in which objections to Imperial trade regulation were as significant as taxation policy. The second was a civil war with all thirteen states split between Patriots, Loyalists and those who preferred to remain neutral. Particularly in the south, many battles were fought between Patriots and Loyalists with no British involvement, leading to divisions that continued after independence was achieved. The third element was a global war between France, Spain, the Dutch Republic and Britain, with America as one of a number of different theaters. After entering the war in 1778, France provided the Americans money, weapons, soldiers, and naval assistance, while French troops fought under US command in North America. While Spain did not formally join the war in America, they provided access to the Mississippi River and by capturing British possessions on the Gulf of Mexico denied bases to the Royal Navy, as well as retaking [[Menorca]] and besieging [[Gibraltar]] in Europe. Although the Dutch Republic was no longer a major power, prior to 1774 they still dominated the European carrying trade, and Dutch merchants made large profits by shipping French-supplied munitions to the Patriots. This ended when Britain [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War|declared war]] in December 1780 and the conflict proved disastrous to their economy. The Dutch were also excluded from the [[First League of Armed Neutrality]], formed by Russia, Sweden and Denmark in March 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by Britain and France. While of limited effect, these interventions forced the British to divert men and resources away from North America.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders", "American strategy"], "text": "Congress had multiple advantages if the rebellion turned into a protracted war. Their prosperous state populations depended on local production for food and supplies rather than on imports from their mother country that lay six to twelve weeks away by sail. They were spread across most of the North American Atlantic seaboard, stretching 1,000 miles. Most farms were remote from the seaports, and controlling four or five major ports did not give British armies control over the inland areas. Each state had established internal distribution systems. Each former colony had a long-established system of local militia, combat-tested in support of British regulars thirteen years before to secure an expanded British Empire. Together they took away French claims in North America west to the Mississippi River in the [[French and Indian War]]. The state legislatures independently funded and controlled their local militias. In the American Revolution, they trained and provided Continental Line regiments to the regular army, each with their own state officer corps. Motivation was also a major asset: each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers, and the Patriots had more popular support than the Loyalists. British hoped that the Loyalists would do much of the fighting, but they fought less than expected.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders", "Continental Army"], "text": "When the war began, Congress lacked a professional army or navy, and each colony only maintained local militias. Militiamen were lightly armed, had little training, and usually did not have uniforms. Their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time and lacked the training and discipline of more experienced soldiers. Local county militias were reluctant to travel far from home and they were unavailable for extended operations. To compensate for this, Congress established a regular force known as the Continental Army on June 14, 1775, the origin of the modern [[United States Army]], and appointed Washington as commander-in-chief. However, it suffered significantly from the lack of an effective training program and from largely inexperienced officers and sergeants, offset by a few senior officers. Each state legislature appointed officers for both county and state militias and their regimental Continental Line officers; although Washington was required to accept Congressional appointments, he was still permitted to choose and command his own generals, such as [[Nathanael Greene]], his chief of artillery, [[Henry Knox]], and [[Alexander Hamilton]], the chief of staff. One of Washington's most successful recruits to general officer was Baron [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben]], a veteran of the Prussian general staff who wrote the [[Revolutionary War Drill Manual]]. The development of the Continental Army was always a work in progress and Washington used both his regulars and state militia throughout the war; when properly employed, the combination allowed them to overwhelm smaller British forces, as at Concord, Boston, Bennington, and Saratoga. Both sides used partisan warfare, but the state militias effectively suppressed Loyalist activity when British regulars were not in the area. Washington designed the overall military strategy of the war in cooperation with Congress, established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs, personally recruited his senior officer corps, and kept the states focused on a common goal. For the first three years until after [[Valley Forge]], the Continental Army was largely supplemented by local state militias. Initially, Washington employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops in [[Fabian strategy|Fabian strategies]] rather than risk frontal assaults against Britain's professional soldiers and officers. Over the course of the entire war, Washington lost more battles than he won, but he never surrendered his troops and maintained a fighting force in the face of British field armies and never gave up fighting for the American cause. By prevailing European standards, the armies in America were relatively small, limited by lack of supplies and logistics; the British in particular were constrained by the difficulty of transporting troops across the Atlantic and dependence on local supplies. Washington never directly commanded more than 17,000 men, while the combined Franco-American army at Yorktown was only about 19,000. At the beginning of 1776, Patriot forces consisted of 20,000 men, with two-thirds in the Continental Army and the other third in the various state militias. About 250,000 men served as regulars or as militia for the Revolutionary cause over eight years during wartime, but there were never more than 90,000 men under arms at one time.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders", "Continental Army"], "text": "As a whole, American officers never equaled their opponents in tactics and maneuvers, and they lost most of the pitched battles. The great successes at [[Siege of Boston|Boston]] (1776), [[Battles of Saratoga|Saratoga]] (1777), and [[Siege of Yorktown|Yorktown]] (1781) were won from trapping the British far from base with a greater number of troops. Nevertheless, after 1778, Washington's army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force, mostly by [[Baron von Steuben]]'s training. Immediately after the Army emerged from Valley Forge, it proved its ability to match the British troops in action at the [[Battle of Monmouth]], including a black Rhode Island regiment fending off a British bayonet attack then counter-charging for the first time in Washington's army. Here Washington came to realize that saving entire towns was not necessary, but preserving his army and keeping the revolutionary spirit alive was more important in the long run. Washington informed [[Henry Laurens]] \"that the possession of our towns, while we have an army in the field, will avail them little.\" Although Congress was responsible for the war effort and provided supplies to the troops, Washington took it upon himself to pressure the Congress and state legislatures to provide the essentials of war; there was never nearly enough. Congress evolved in its committee oversight and established the Board of War, which included members of the military. Because the Board of War was also a committee ensnared with its own internal procedures, Congress also created the post of Secretary of War, and appointed Major General [[Benjamin Lincoln]] in February 1781 to the position. Washington worked closely with Lincoln to coordinate civilian and military authorities and took charge of training and supplying the army.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders", "Continental Navy"], "text": "During the first summer of the war, Washington began outfitting schooners and other small seagoing vessels to prey on ships supplying the British in Boston. Congress established the [[Continental Navy]] on October 13, 1775, and appointed [[Esek Hopkins]] as its first commander; for most of the war, it consisted of a handful of small frigates and sloops, supported by numerous privateers. On November 10, 1775, Congress authorized the creation of the [[Continental Marines]], forefather of the [[United States Marine Corps]]. [[John Paul Jones]] became the first American naval hero by capturing [[HMS Drake (1777)|HMS ''Drake'']] on April 24, 1778, the first victory for any American military vessel in British waters. The last was by the frigate [[USS Alliance (1778)|USS ''Alliance'']] commanded by Captain [[John Barry (naval officer)|John Barry]]. On March 10, 1783, the ''Alliance'' outgunned HMS ''Sybil'' in a 45-minute duel while escorting Spanish gold from Havana to Congress. After Yorktown, all US Navy ships were sold or given away; it was the first time in America's history that it had no fighting forces on the high seas. Congress primarily commissioned privateers to reduce costs and to take advantage of the large proportion of colonial sailors found in the British Empire. Overall, they included 1,700 ships that successfully captured 2,283 enemy ships to damage the British effort and to enrich themselves with the proceeds from the sale of cargo and the ship itself. About 55,000 sailors served aboard American privateers during the war.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders", "France"], "text": "To begin with, the Americans had no major international allies, as most nation-states watched and waited to see developments unfold in British North America. Over time, the Continental Army acquitted itself well in the face of British regulars and their German auxiliaries known to all European great powers. Battles such as the [[Battle of Bennington]], the [[Battles of Saratoga]], and even defeats such as the [[Battle of Germantown]], proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful European nations including France and Spain, and the [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War#Background|Dutch Republic]]; the latter moved from covertly supplying the Americans with weapons and supplies to overtly supporting them. The decisive American victory at [[Battles of Saratoga|Saratoga]] convinced [[France in the American Revolutionary War|France]] to offer the Americans the [[Treaty of Amity and Commerce (France–United States)|Treaty of Amity and Commerce]]. The two nations also agreed to a defensive [[Treaty of Alliance (1778)|Treaty of Alliance]] to protect their trade and also guaranteed American independence from Britain. To engage the United States as a French ally militarily, the treaty was conditioned on Britain initiating a war on France to stop it from trading with the US. Spain and the Dutch Republic were invited to join by both France and the United States in the treaty, but neither made a formal reply. On June 13, 1778, France declared war on Great Britain, and it invoked the French military alliance with the US, which ensured additional US privateer support for French possessions in the Caribbean. Washington worked closely with the soldiers and navy that France would send to America, primarily through [[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette|Lafayette]] on his staff. French assistance made critical contributions required to defeat General [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]] at Yorktown in 1781.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders", "British strategy"], "text": "The British military had considerable experience of fighting in North America, most recently during the Seven Years' War which forced France to give up [[New France]] in 1763. However, in previous conflicts they benefited from local logistics, as well as support from the colonial militia, which was not available in the American Revolutionary War. Reinforcements had to come from Europe, and maintaining large armies over such distances was extremely complex; ships could take three months to cross the Atlantic, and orders from London were often outdated by the time they arrived. Prior to the conflict, the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities, with no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance. This meant that, unlike Europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars, that in America continued even after the loss of major settlements such as Philadelphia, the seat of Congress, New York and Charleston. British power was reliant on the Royal Navy, whose dominance allowed them to resupply their own expeditionary forces while preventing access to enemy ports. However, the majority of the American population was agrarian, rather than urban; supported by the French navy and blockade runners based in the [[Dutch Caribbean]], their economy was able to survive. The geographical size of the colonies and limited manpower meant the British could not simultaneously conduct military operations and occupy territory without local support. Debate persists over whether their defeat was inevitable; one British statesman described it as \"like trying to conquer a map\". While [[John E. Ferling|Ferling]] argues Patriot victory was nothing short of a miracle, [[Joseph Ellis|Ellis]] suggests the odds always favored the Americans, especially after Howe squandered the chance of a decisive British success in 1776, an \"opportunity that would never come again\". The US military history speculates the additional commitment of 10,000 fresh troops in 1780 would have placed British victory \"within the realm of possibility\".", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders", "British strategy", "British Army"], "text": "The expulsion of France from North America in 1763 led to a drastic reduction in British troop levels in the colonies; in 1775, there were only 8,500 regular soldiers among a civilian population of 2.8 million. The bulk of military resources in the Americas were focused on defending sugar islands in the Caribbean; [[Colony of Jamaica|Jamaica]] alone generated more revenue than all thirteen American colonies combined. With the end of the Seven Years' War, the permanent army in Britain was also cut back, which resulted in administrative difficulties when the war began a decade later. Over the course of the war, there were four separate British commanders-in-chief, the first of whom was Thomas Gage; appointed in 1763, his initial focus was establishing British rule in former French areas of Canada. Rightly or wrongly, many in London blamed the revolt on his failure to take firm action earlier, and he was relieved after the heavy losses incurred at Bunker Hill. His replacement was Sir William Howe, a member of the Whig faction in Parliament who opposed the policy of coercion advocated by Lord North; Cornwallis, who later surrendered at Yorktown, was one of many senior officers who initially refused to serve in North America. The 1775 campaign showed the British overestimated the capabilities of their own troops and underestimated the colonial militia, requiring a reassessment of tactics and strategy. However, it allowed the Patriots to take the initiative and British authorities rapidly lost control over every colony. Howe's responsibility is still debated; despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements, Bunker Hill seems to have permanently affected his self-confidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities. Many of his decisions were attributed to supply problems, such as the delay in launching the New York campaign and failure to pursue Washington's beaten army. Having lost the confidence of his subordinates, he was recalled after Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. Following the failure of the Carlisle Commission, British policy changed from treating the Patriots as subjects who needed to be reconciled to enemies who had to be defeated. In 1778, Howe was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton, appointed instead of Carleton who was considered overly cautious. Regarded as an expert on tactics and strategy, like his predecessors Clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues. As a result, he was largely inactive in 1779 and much of 1780; in October 1780, he warned Germain of \"fatal consequences\" if matters did not improve. In addition, Clinton's strategy was compromised by conflict with political superiors in London and his colleagues in North America, especially Admiral [[Mariot Arbuthnot]], replaced in early 1781 by Rodney. He was neither notified nor consulted when Germain approved Cornwallis' invasion of the south in 1781 and delayed sending him reinforcements believing the bulk of Washington's army was still outside New York City. After the surrender at Yorktown, Clinton was relieved by Carleton, whose major task was to oversee the evacuation of Loyalists and British troops from Savannah, Charleston, and New York City.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders", "British strategy", "German Troops"], "text": "During the 18th century, all states commonly hired foreign soldiers, especially Britain; during the Seven Years' War, they comprised 10% of the British army and their use caused little debate. When it became clear additional troops were needed to suppress the revolt in America, it was decided to employ mercenaries. There were several reasons for this, including public sympathy for the Patriot cause, an historical reluctance to expand the British army and the time needed to recruit and train new regiments. An alternate source was readily available in the [[Holy Roman Empire]], where many smaller states had a long tradition of renting their armies to the highest bidder. The most important was [[Landgraviate of Hesse-Kassel|Hesse-Cassel]], known as \"the Mercenary State\". The first supply agreements were signed by the North administration in late 1775; over the next decade, more than 40,000 Germans fought in North America, Gibraltar, South Africa and India, of whom 30,000 served in the American War. Often generically referred to as \"Hessians\", they included men from many other states, including [[Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Hanover]] and [[Electorate of Brunswick-Lüneburg|Brunswick]]. Sir Henry Clinton recommended recruiting Russian troops whom he rated very highly, having seen them in action against the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|Ottomans]]; however, negotiations with [[Catherine the Great]] made little progress. Unlike previous wars their use led to intense political debate in Britain, France, and even Germany, where [[Frederick William II of Prussia|Frederick the Great]] refused to provide passage through his territories for troops hired for the American war. In March 1776, the agreements were challenged in Parliament by Whigs who objected to \"coercion\" in general, and the use of foreign soldiers to subdue \"British subjects\". The debates were covered in detail by American newspapers, which reprinted key speeches and in May 1776 they received copies of the treaties themselves. Provided by British sympathizers, these were smuggled into North America from London by George Merchant, a recently released American prisoner. The prospect of mercenaries being used in the colonies bolstered support for independence, more so than taxation and other acts combined; the King was accused of declaring war on his own subjects, leading to the idea there were now two separate governments. By apparently showing Britain was determined to go to war, it made hopes of reconciliation seem naive and hopeless, while the employment of 'foreign mercenaries' became one of the charges levelled against George III in the Declaration of Independence. The Hessian reputation within Germany for brutality also increased support for the Patriot cause among German-American immigrants.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Strategy and commanders", "British strategy", "German Troops"], "text": "The presence of over 150,000 German-Americans meant both sides felt these mercenaries might be persuaded to desert; one reason Clinton suggested employing Russians was that he felt they were less likely to defect. When the first German troops arrived on [[Staten Island]] in August 1776, Congress approved the printing of \"handbills\" promising land and citizenship to any willing to join the Patriot cause. The British launched a counter-campaign claiming deserters could well be executed for meddling in a war that was not theirs. Desertion among the Germans occurred throughout the war, with the highest rate of desertion occurring during the time between the surrender at Yorktown and the Treaty of Paris. German regiments were central to the British war effort; of the estimated 30,000 sent to America, some 13,000 became casualties.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Revolution as civil war", "Loyalists"], "text": "Wealthy Loyalists convinced the British government that most of the colonists were sympathetic toward the Crown; consequently, British military planners relied on recruiting Loyalists, but had trouble recruiting sufficient numbers as the Patriots had widespread support. Nevertheless, they continued to deceive themselves on their level of American support as late as 1780, a year before hostilities ended. Approximately 25,000 Loyalists fought for the British throughout the war. Although Loyalists constituted about twenty percent of the colonial population, they were concentrated in distinct communities. Many of them lived among large plantation owners in the [[Tidewater (region)|Tidewater region]] and [[South Carolina in the American Revolution#Early conflicts|South Carolina]] who produced cash crops in tobacco and indigo comparable to global markets in Caribbean sugar. When the British began probing the backcountry in 1777–1778, they were faced with a major problem: any significant level of organized Loyalist activity required a continued presence of British regulars. The available manpower that the British had in America was insufficient to protect Loyalist territory and counter American offensives. The Loyalist militias in the South were constantly defeated by neighboring Patriot militia. The most critical combat between the two partisan militias was at the [[Battle of Kings Mountain]]; the Patriot victory irreversibly crippled any further Loyalist militia capability in the South. When the early war policy was administered by General [[William Howe, 5th Viscount Howe|William Howe]], the Crown's need to maintain Loyalist support prevented it from using the traditional revolt suppression methods. The British cause suffered when their troops ransacked local homes during an aborted attack on Charleston in 1779 that enraged both Patriots and Loyalists. After Congress rejected the [[Carlisle Peace Commission]] in 1778 and Westminster turned to \"hard war\" during Clinton's command, neutral colonists in the Carolinas often allied with the Patriots whenever brutal combat broke out between Tories and Whigs. Conversely, Loyalists gained support when Patriots intimidated suspected Tories by destroying property or [[tarring and feathering]]. A Loyalist militia unit—the [[British Legion (American Revolution)|British Legion]]—provided some of the best troops in British service that it received a commission in the British Army: it was a mixed regiment of 250 [[dragoon]] and 200 infantry supported by batteries of flying artillery. It was commanded by [[Banastre Tarleton]] and gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies for \"brutality and needless slaughter\". In May 1779 the British Legion was one of five regiments that formed the [[American establishment (British army)|American Establishment]].", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Revolution as civil war", "Women"], "text": "Women played various roles during the Revolutionary War; they often accompanied their husbands when permitted to do so. For example, throughout the war [[Martha Washington]] was known to visit and provide aid to her husband George at various American camps, and [[Frederika Charlotte Riedesel]] documented the [[Saratoga campaign]]. Women often accompanied armies as [[camp follower]] to sell goods and perform necessary tasks in hospitals and camps. They were a necessary part of eighteenth-century armies, and numbered in the thousands during the war. Women also assumed military roles: aside from auxiliary tasks like treating the wounded or setting up camp, some dressed as men to directly support combat, fight, or act as spies on both sides of the Revolutionary War. Anna Maria Lane joined her husband in the Army and wore men's clothes by the time the [[Battle of Germantown]] happened. The Virginia General Assembly later cited her bravery: she fought while dressed as a man and \"performed extraordinary military services, and received a severe wound at the battle of Germantown ... with the courage of a soldier\". On April 26, 1777, [[Sybil Ludington]] rode to alert militia forces of Putnam County, New York, and Danbury, Connecticut, to warn them of the British's approach; she has been called the \"female Paul Revere\". A few others [[List of wartime cross-dressers|disguised themselves as men]]. [[Deborah Sampson]] fought until her gender was discovered and discharged as a result; [[Sally St. Clair]] was killed in action during the war.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Revolution as civil war", "African Americans"], "text": "When war began, the population of the Thirteen Colonies included an estimated 500,000 slaves, predominantly used as labor on [[Plantation complexes in the Southern United States|Southern plantations]]. In November 1775, [[John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore|Lord Dunmore]], the Royal Governor of Virginia, issued a [[Dunmore's Proclamation|proclamation]] that promised freedom to any Patriot-owned slaves willing to bear arms. Although the announcement helped to fill a temporary manpower shortage, white Loyalist prejudice meant recruits were eventually redirected to non-combatant roles. The Loyalists' motive was to deprive Patriot [[Planter class|planters]] of labor rather than to end slavery; Loyalist-owned slaves were returned. The 1779 [[Philipsburg Proclamation]] issued by Clinton extended the offer of freedom to Patriot-owned slaves throughout the colonies. It persuaded entire families to escape to British lines, many of which were employed on farms to grow food for the army by removing the requirement for military service. While Clinton organized the [[Black Pioneers]], he also ensured fugitive slaves were returned to Loyalist owners with orders that they were not to be punished for their attempted escape. As the war progressed, service as regular soldiers in British units became increasingly common; black Loyalists formed two regiments of the Charleston garrison in 1783. Estimates of the numbers who served the British during the war vary from 25,000 to 50,000, excluding those who escaped during wartime. Thomas Jefferson estimated that Virginia may have lost 30,000 slaves in total escapes. In South Carolina, nearly 25,000 slaves (about 30 percent of the enslaved population) either fled, migrated, or died, which significantly disrupted the plantation economies both during and after the war. [[Black Patriot]] were barred from the Continental Army until Washington convinced Congress in January 1778 that there was no other way to replace losses from disease and desertion. The [[1st Rhode Island Regiment]] formed in February included former slaves whose owners were compensated; however, only 140 of its 225 soldiers were black and recruitment stopped in June 1788. Ultimately, around 5,000 African-Americans served in the Continental Army and Navy in a variety of roles, while another 4,000 were employed in Patriot militia units, aboard privateers, or as teamsters, servants, and spies. After the war, a small minority received land grants or Congressional pensions in old age; many others were returned to their masters post-war despite earlier promises of freedom. As a Patriot victory became increasingly likely, the treatment of Black Loyalists became a point of contention; after the surrender of Yorktown in 1781, Washington insisted all escapees be returned but Cornwallis refused. In 1782 and 1783, around 8,000 to 10,000 freed blacks were evacuated by the British from Charleston, Savannah, and New York; some moved onto London, while 3,000 to 4,000 settled in [[Nova Scotia]], where they founded settlements such as [[Birchtown, Nova Scotia|Birchtown]]. White Loyalists transported 15,000 enslaved blacks to [[Colony of Jamaica|Jamaica]] and the [[Bahamas]]. The free Black Loyalists who migrated to the [[British West Indies]] included regular soldiers from Dunmore's [[Ethiopian Regiment]], and those from Charleston who helped garrison the [[Leeward Islands]].", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Revolution as civil war", "American Indians"], "text": "Most [[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] east of the [[Mississippi River]] were affected by the war, and many tribes were divided over how to respond to the conflict. A few tribes were friendly with the colonists, but most Indians opposed the union of the Colonies as a potential threat to their territory. Approximately 13,000 Indians fought on the British side, with the largest group coming from the [[Iroquois]] tribes who deployed around 1,500 men. Early in July 1776, [[Cherokee]] allies of Britain attacked the short-lived [[Washington District, North Carolina|Washington District]] of [[North Carolina Colony|North Carolina]]. Their defeat splintered both Cherokee settlements and people, and was directly responsible for the rise of the [[Chickamauga Cherokee]], who perpetuated the [[Cherokee–American wars]] against American settlers for decades after hostilities with Britain ended. [[Muscogee people|Creek]] and [[Seminole]] allies of Britain fought against Americans in Georgia and South Carolina. In 1778, a force of 800 Creeks destroyed American settlements along the [[Broad River (Georgia)|Broad River]] in Georgia. Creek warriors also joined [[Thomas Brown (loyalist)|Thomas Brown's]] raids into South Carolina and assisted Britain during the [[Siege of Savannah]]. Many Indians were involved in the fight between Britain and Spain on the Gulf Coast and along the British side of the Mississippi River. Thousands of Creeks, [[Chickasaw]], and [[Choctaw]] fought in major battles such as the [[Battle of Fort Charlotte]], the [[Battle of Mobile (1781)|Battle of Mobile]], and the [[Siege of Pensacola]]. The [[Iroquois Confederacy]] was shattered as a result of the American Revolutionary War, whatever side they took; the [[Seneca nation|Seneca]], [[Onondaga (tribe)|Onondaga]], and [[Cayuga nation|Cayuga]] tribes sided with the British; members of the [[Mohawk nation|Mohawks]] fought on both sides; and many [[Tuscarora (tribe)|Tuscarora]] and [[Oneida tribe|Oneida]] sided with the Americans. To retaliate against raids on American settlement by Loyalists and their Indian allies, the Continental Army dispatched the [[Sullivan Expedition]] on a punitive expedition throughout New York to cripple the Iroquois tribes that had sided with the British. Mohawk leaders [[Joseph Louis Cook]] and [[Joseph Brant]] sided with the Americans and the British respectively, which further exacerbated the split. In the [[western theater of the American Revolutionary War]], conflicts between settlers and Indians led to lingering distrust. In the [[Treaty of Paris (1783)|1783 Treaty of Paris]], Great Britain ceded control of the disputed lands between the Great Lakes and the [[Ohio River]], but the Indian inhabitants were not a part of the peace negotiations. Tribes in the [[Northwest Territory]] joined together as the [[Western Confederacy]] and allied with the British to resist American settlement, and their conflict continued after the Revolutionary War as the [[Northwest Indian War]].", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Britain's \"American war\" and peace", "Changing Prime Ministers"], "text": "[[Frederick North, 2nd Earl of Guilford|Lord North]], Prime Minister since 1770, delegated control of the war in North America to [[Lord George Germain]] and the [[John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich|Earl of Sandwich]], who was [[First Lord of the Admiralty|head of the Royal Navy]] from 1771 to 1782. Defeat at Saratoga in 1777 made it clear the revolt would not be easily suppressed, especially after the Franco-American alliance of February 1778, and French declaration of war in June. With Spain also expected to join the conflict, the Royal Navy needed to prioritize either the war in America or in Europe; Germain advocated the former, Sandwich the latter. British negotiators now proposed a second peace settlement to Congress. The terms presented by the [[Carlisle Peace Commission]] included acceptance of the principle of self-government. Parliament would recognize Congress as the governing body, suspend any objectionable legislation, surrender its right to local colonial taxation, and discuss including American representatives in the House of Commons. In return, all property confiscated from Loyalists would be returned, British debts honored, and locally enforced martial law accepted. However, Congress demanded either immediate recognition of independence or the withdrawal of all British troops; they knew the commission were not authorized to accept these, bringing negotiations to a rapid end. When the commissioners returned to London in November 1778, they recommended a change in policy. Sir Henry Clinton, the new British Commander-in-Chief in America, was ordered to stop treating the rebels as enemies, rather than subjects whose loyalty might be regained. Those standing orders would be in effect for three years until Clinton was relieved. North backed the Southern strategy hoping to exploit divisions between the mercantile north and slave-owning south, but after Yorktown accepted this policy had failed. It was clear the war was lost, although the Royal Navy forced the French to relocate their fleet to the Caribbean in November 1781 and resumed a close blockade of American trade. The resulting economic damage and rising inflation meant the US was now eager to end the war, while France was unable to provide further loans; Congress could no longer pay its soldiers. On February 27, 1782, a Whig motion to end the offensive war in America was carried by 19 votes. North now resigned, obliging the king to invite [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Lord Rockingham]] to form a government; a consistent supporter of the Patriot cause, he made a commitment to US independence a condition of doing so. George III reluctantly accepted and the [[Second Rockingham ministry|new government]] took office on March 27, 1782; however, Rockingham died unexpectedly on July 1, and was replaced by [[Shelburne ministry|Lord Shelburne]] who acknowledged American independence.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Britain's \"American war\" and peace", "American Congress signs a peace"], "text": "When Lord Rockingham, the Whig leader and friend of the American cause was elevated to Prime Minister, Congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in Europe into a peace delegation at Paris. All were experienced in Congressional leadership. The dean of the delegation was [[Benjamin Franklin]] of Pennsylvania. He had become a celebrity in the French Court, but he was also an Enlightenment scientist with influence in the courts of European great powers in Prussia, England's former ally, and Austria, a Catholic empire like Spain. Since the 1760s he had been an organizer of British American inter-colony cooperation, and then a colonial lobbyist to Parliament in London. [[John Adams]] of Massachusetts had been consul to the Dutch Republic and was a prominent early New England Patriot. [[John Jay]] of New York had been consul to Spain and was a past president of the Continental Congress. As consul to the Dutch Republic, [[Henry Laurens]] of South Carolina had secured a preliminary agreement for a trade agreement. He had been a successor to John Jay as [[President of the Continental Congress|president of Congress]] and with Franklin was a member of the [[American Philosophical Society]]. Although active in the preliminaries, he was not a signer of the conclusive treaty. The Whig negotiators for Lord Rockingham and his successor, Prime Minister Lord Shelburne, included long-time friend of Benjamin Franklin from his time in London, [[David Hartley (the Younger)|David Hartley]] and [[Richard Oswald (merchant)|Richard Oswald]], who had negotiated Laurens' release from the Tower of London. The Preliminary Peace signed on November 30 met four key Congressional demands: independence, territory up to the Mississippi, navigation rights into the Gulf of Mexico, and fishing rights in Newfoundland. British strategy was to strengthen the US sufficiently to prevent France from regaining a foothold in North America, and they had little interest in these proposals. However, divisions between their opponents allowed them to negotiate separately with each to improve their overall position, starting with the American delegation in September 1782. The French and Spanish sought to improve their position by creating the U.S. dependent on them for support against Britain, thus reversing the losses of 1763. Both parties tried to negotiate a settlement with Britain excluding the Americans; France proposed setting the western boundary of the US along the Appalachians, matching the British [[Royal Proclamation of 1763|1763 Proclamation Line]]. The Spanish suggested additional concessions in the vital Mississippi River Basin, but required the cession of [[Georgia in the American Revolution|Georgia]] in violation of the Franco-American alliance.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Britain's \"American war\" and peace", "American Congress signs a peace"], "text": "Facing difficulties with Spain over claims involving the Mississippi River, and from France who was still reluctant to agree to American independence until all her demands were met, John Jay promptly told the British that he was willing to negotiate directly with them, cutting off France and Spain, and Prime Minister Lord Shelburne, in charge of the British negotiations, agreed. Key agreements for America in obtaining peace included recognition of United States independence, that she would gain all of the area east of the Mississippi River, north of Florida, and south of Canada; the granting of fishing rights in the [[Grand Banks]], off the coast of [[Newfoundland]] and in the Gulf of [[Saint Lawrence]]; the United States and Great Britain were to each be given perpetual access to the Mississippi River. An Anglo-American Preliminary Peace was formally entered into in November 1782, and Congress endorsed the settlement on April 15, 1783. It announced the achievement of peace with independence; the \"conclusive\" treaty was signed on September 2, 1783, in Paris, effective the next day September 3, when Britain signed its treaty with France. John Adams, who helped draft the treaty, claimed it represented \"one of the most important political events that ever happened on the globe\". Ratified respectively by Congress and Parliament, the final versions were exchanged in Paris the following spring. On 25 November, the last British troops remaining in the US were evacuated from New York to Halifax.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Aftermath"], "text": "Washington expressed astonishment that the Americans had won a war against a leading world power, referring to the American victory as \"little short of a standing miracle\". The conflict between British subjects with the Crown against those with the Congress had lasted over eight years from 1775 to 1783. The last uniformed British troops [[Evacuation Day (New York)|departed]] their last east coast port cities in Savannah, Charleston, and New York City, by November 25, 1783. That marked the end of British occupation in the new United States. On April 9, 1783, Washington issued orders that he had long waited to give, that \"all acts of hostility\" were to cease immediately. That same day, by arrangement with Washington, [[Guy Carleton, 1st Baron Dorchester|General Carleton]] issued a similar order to British troops. British troops, however, were not to evacuate until a prisoner of war exchange occurred, an effort that involved much negotiation and would take some seven months to effect. As directed by a Congressional resolution of May 26, 1783, all non-commissioned officers and enlisted were furloughed \"to their homes\" until the \"definitive treaty of peace\", when they would be automatically discharged. The US armies were directly disbanded in the field as of Washington's General Orders on Monday, June 2, 1783. Once the conclusive Treaty of Paris was signed with Britain, Washington resigned as commander-in-chief at Congress, leaving for his Army retirement at Mount Vernon.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Aftermath", "Territory"], "text": "The expanse of territory that was now the United States was ceded from its colonial [[Homeland#Motherland|Mother country]] alone. It included millions of sparsely settled acres south of the [[Great Lakes|Great Lakes Line]] between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River. The tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the years of the Revolutionary War. Virginia's Kentucky County counted 150 men in 1775. By 1790 fifteen years later, it numbered over 73,000 and was seeking statehood in the United States. Britain's extended post-war policy for the US continued to try to establish an Indian buffer state below the Great Lakes as late as 1814 during the [[War of 1812]]. The formally acquired western American lands continued to be populated by a dozen or so American Indian tribes that had been British allies for the most part. Though British forts on their lands had been ceded to either the French or the British prior to the creation of the United States, Indians were not referred to in the British cession to the US. While tribes were not consulted by the British for the treaty, in practice the British refused to abandon the forts on territory they formally transferred. Instead, they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids and sponsored the [[Northwest Indian War|Northwest Indian War (1785–1795)]]. British sponsorship of local warfare on the United States continued until the Anglo-American [[Jay Treaty]] went into effect. At the same time, the Spanish also sponsored war within the US by Indian proxies in its Southwest Territory ceded by France to Britain, then Britain to the Americans. Of the European powers with American colonies adjacent to the newly created United States, Spain was most threatened by American independence, and it was correspondingly the most hostile to it. Its territory adjacent to the US was relatively undefended, so Spanish policy developed a combination of initiatives. Spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the British territorial cession west to the Mississippi and the previous northern boundaries of [[Spanish Florida]]. It imposed a high tariff on American goods, then blocked American settler access to the port of New Orleans. Spanish hard power extended war alliances and arms to Southwestern Indians to resist American settlement. A former Continental Army General, [[James Wilkinson]] settled in [[History of Kentucky#Kentucky in the American Revolution (1775–1783)|Kentucky County]] Virginia in 1784, and there he fostered settler secession from Virginia during the Spanish-allied [[Cherokee–American wars|Chickamauga Cherokee war]]. Beginning in 1787, he received pay as Spanish Agent 13, and subsequently expanded his efforts to persuade American settlers west of the Appalachians to secede from the United States, first in the Washington administration, and later again in the Jefferson administration.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Aftermath", "Casualties and losses"], "text": "The total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown. As was typical in wars of the era, diseases such as [[smallpox]] claimed more lives than battle. Between 1775 and 1782, a [[1775–82 North American smallpox epidemic|smallpox epidemic]] broke out throughout North America, killing an estimated 130,000 among all its populations during those years. Historian [[Joseph Ellis]] suggests that Washington's decision to have his troops [[Variolation|inoculated]] against the disease was one of his most important decisions. Up to 70,000 American Patriots died during active military service. Of these, approximately 6,800 were killed in battle, while at least 17,000 died from disease. The majority of the latter died while [[prisoners of war]] of the British, mostly in the [[Prisoners in the American Revolutionary War|prison ships]] in New York Harbor. The number of Patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8,500 to 25,000. The French suffered 2,112 killed in combat in the United States. The Spanish lost a total of 124 killed and 247 wounded in West Florida. A British report in 1781 puts their total Army deaths at 6,046 in North America (1775–1779). Approximately 7,774 [[Germans in the American Revolution#Allies of Great Britain|Germans]] died in British service in addition to 4,888 deserters; of the former, it is estimated 1,800 were killed in combat.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Aftermath", "Legacy"], "text": "The American Revolution established the United States with its numerous civil liberties and set an example to overthrow both monarchy and colonial governments. The United States has the world's oldest written constitution, and the constitutions of other free countries often bear a striking resemblance to the US Constitution, often word-for-word in places. It inspired the French, Haitian, Latin American Revolutions, and others into the modern era. Although the Revolution eliminated many forms of inequality, it did little to change the status of women, despite the role they played in winning independence. Most significantly, it failed to end slavery which continued to be a serious social and political issue and caused divisions that would ultimately end in [[American Civil War|civil war]]. While many were uneasy over the contradiction of demanding liberty for some, yet denying it to others, the dependence of southern states on slave labor made abolition too great a challenge. Between 1774 and 1780, many of the states banned the importation of slaves, but the institution itself continued. In 1782, Virginia passed a law permitting manumission and over the next eight years more than 10,000 slaves were given their freedom. With support from Benjamin Franklin, in 1790 the [[Quakers]] petitioned Congress to abolish slavery; the number of abolitionist movements greatly increased, and by 1804 all the northern states had outlawed it. However, even many like Adams who viewed slavery as a 'foul contagion' opposed the 1790 petition as a threat to the Union. In 1808, Jefferson passed legislation [[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves|banning the importation of slaves]], but allowed the domestic slave trade to continue, arguing the federal government had no right to regulate individual states.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Aftermath", "Historiography"], "text": "A large historiography concerns the reasons the Americans revolted and successfully broke away. The \"Patriots\", an insulting term used by the British that was proudly adopted by the Americans, stressed the constitutional rights of Englishmen, especially \"[[No taxation without representation]].\" Historians since the 1960s have emphasized that the Patriot constitutional argument was made possible by the emergence of a sense of American nationalism that united all 13 colonies. In turn, that nationalism was rooted in a [[republicanism in the United States|Republican value system]] that demanded consent of the governed and opposed aristocratic control. In Britain itself, republicanism was a fringe view since it challenged the aristocratic control of the British political system. Political power was not controlled by an aristocracy or nobility in the 13 colonies, and instead, the colonial political system was based on the winners of free elections, which were open to the majority of white men. In the analysis of the coming of the Revolution, historians in recent decades have mostly used one of three approaches. The [[Atlantic history]] view places the American story in a broader context, including revolutions in France and Haiti. It tends to reintegrate the historiographies of the American Revolution and the British Empire. The \"[[new social history]]\" approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages. The ideological approach that centers on republicanism in the United States. Republicanism dictated there would be no royalty, aristocracy or national church but allowed for continuation of the British common law, which American lawyers and jurists understood and approved and used in their everyday practice. Historians have examined how the rising American legal profession adopted British common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choices for courts.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": ["Commemorations of the Revolutionary War"], "text": "After the first U.S. postage stamp was issued in 1849 the U.S. Post Office frequently issued commemorative stamps celebrating the various people and events of the Revolutionary War. However, it would be more than 140 years after the Revolution before any stamp commemorating that war was ever issued. The first such stamp was the 'Liberty Bell' issue of 1926.", "id": "771", "title": "American Revolutionary War", "categories": ["American Revolutionary War", "Conflicts in 1775", "Conflicts in 1776", "Conflicts in 1777", "Conflicts in 1778", "Conflicts in 1779", "Conflicts in 1780", "Conflicts in 1781", "Conflicts in 1782", "Conflicts in 1783", "Global conflicts", "Rebellions against the British Empire", "Wars between the United Kingdom and the United States", "Wars of independence"], "seealso": ["Timeline of the American Revolution", "1776 in the United States"]}
{"headers": [], "text": "The '''ampere''' (, ; symbol: '''A'''), often [[Clipping (morphology)|shortened]] to \"amp\", is the [[SI base unit|base unit]] of [[electric current]] in the [[International System of Units]] (SI). It is named after [[André-Marie Ampère]] (1775–1836), French mathematician and physicist, considered the father of [[electromagnetism]]. The International System of Units defines the ampere in terms of other base units by measuring the electromagnetic force between electrical conductors carrying electric current. The earlier [[Centimetre–gram–second system of units|CGS system]] had two different definitions of current, one essentially the same as the SI's and the other using [[electric charge]] as the base unit, with the unit of charge defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates. The ampere was then defined as one [[coulomb]] of charge per second. In SI, the unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second. [[2019 redefinition of the SI base units|New definitions]], in terms of invariant constants of nature, specifically the [[elementary charge]], took effect on 20 May 2019.", "id": "772", "title": "Ampere", "categories": ["SI base units", "Units of electric current"], "seealso": ["Ammeter", "Magnetic constant", "Ampacity", "Electric shock", "Electric current", "Orders of magnitude (current)", "Hydraulic analogy"]}
{"headers": ["Definition"], "text": "The ampere is defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the [[elementary charge]] to be 1.602 176 634 × 10 when expressed in the unit C, which is equal to A⋅s, where the second is defined in terms of , the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium-133 atom. The SI unit of charge, the [[coulomb]], \"is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere\". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second: formula_1 In general, charge is determined by steady current flowing for a time as . Constant, instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes (as in \"the charging current is 1.2 A\") and the charge accumulated (or passed through a circuit) over a period of time is expressed in coulombs (as in \"the [[battery (electricity)|battery]] charge is \"). The relation of the ampere (C/s) to the coulomb is the same as that of the [[watt]] (J/s) to the [[joule]].", "id": "772", "title": "Ampere", "categories": ["SI base units", "Units of electric current"], "seealso": ["Ammeter", "Magnetic constant", "Ampacity", "Electric shock", "Electric current", "Orders of magnitude (current)", "Hydraulic analogy"]}
{"headers": ["History"], "text": "The ampere is named for French physicist and mathematician [[André-Marie Ampère]] (1775–1836), who studied [[electromagnetism]] and laid the foundation of [[electrodynamics]]. In recognition of Ampère's contributions to the creation of modern electrical science, an international convention, signed at the 1881 [[International Exposition of Electricity]], established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement for electric current. The ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of [[electric current]] in the [[centimetre–gram–second system of units]]. That unit, now known as the [[abampere]], was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two [[dyne]] per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart. The size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the [[MKS system of units|MKSA]] system would be conveniently sized. The \"international ampere\" was an early realization of the ampere, defined as the current that would deposit of silver per second from a [[silver nitrate]] solution. Later, more accurate measurements revealed that this current is . Since [[power (physics)|power]] is defined as the product of current and voltage, the ampere can alternatively be expressed in terms of the other units using the relationship , and thus 1 A = 1 W/V. Current can be measured by a [[multimeter]], a device that can measure electrical voltage, current, and resistance.", "id": "772", "title": "Ampere", "categories": ["SI base units", "Units of electric current"], "seealso": ["Ammeter", "Magnetic constant", "Ampacity", "Electric shock", "Electric current", "Orders of magnitude (current)", "Hydraulic analogy"]}
{"headers": ["History", "Former definition in the SI"], "text": "Until 2019, the SI defined the ampere as follows: The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed one [[metre]] apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to [[newton (unit)|newtons]] per metre of length.  [[Ampère's force law]] states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current. This force is used in the formal definition of the ampere. The SI unit of charge, the [[coulomb]], was then defined as \"the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere\". Conversely, a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second: formula_2 In general, charge was determined by steady current flowing for a time as .", "id": "772", "title": "Ampere", "categories": ["SI base units", "Units of electric current"], "seealso": ["Ammeter", "Magnetic constant", "Ampacity", "Electric shock", "Electric current", "Orders of magnitude (current)", "Hydraulic analogy"]}
{"headers": ["Realisation"], "text": "The standard ampere is most accurately realised using a [[Kibble balance]], but is in practice maintained via [[Ohm's law]] from the units of [[electromotive force]] and [[Electrical resistance and conductance|resistance]], the [[volt]] and the [[ohm]], since the latter two can be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce, the [[Josephson effect]] and the [[quantum Hall effect]], respectively. Techniques to establish the realisation of an ampere have a [[Approximation error|relative uncertainty]] of approximately a few parts in 10, and involve realisations of the watt, the ohm and the volt.", "id": "772", "title": "Ampere", "categories": ["SI base units", "Units of electric current"], "seealso": ["Ammeter", "Magnetic constant", "Ampacity", "Electric shock", "Electric current", "Orders of magnitude (current)", "Hydraulic analogy"]}